LNG Transport

FUTURE OF LNG TRANSPORTATION:VARIOUS PROPULSION ALTERNATIVES
The Authors
Barun Gupta
th
Kumar Surendra Prasad

th
4 year Marine Engineering and Research Institute, P-19, Taratolla Road, Kolkata-88 E-mail: Barungupta@gmail.com
4 year Marine Engineering and Research Institute, P-19, Taratolla Road, Kolkata-88 E-mail: ravimeri2002@gmail.com
CONTENTS
CHAPTER: 1 LIQUIFIED NATURAL GAS

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.1.1 WHAT IS NATURAL GAS? 1.2 THE FORMATION OF NATURAL GAS 1.3 NATURAL GAS UNDER THE EARTH 1.4 HOW MUCH NATURAL GAS IS THERE? 1.4.1 NATURAL GAS RESOURCE ESTIMATES 1.4.2 WHERE ARE THESE RESERVES? 1.5 WORLD NATURAL GAS RESERVES 1.6 USES OF NATURAL GAS 1.7 WHAT IS LNG? 1.8 PROPERTIES 1.9 SOME INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT LNG 1.10 NEED FOR TRANSPORTATION:
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8 8 10 11 16 17 19 19 20 21 22 22 23
CHAPTER: 2 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
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2.1 PIPE LINES:26 2.1.1 INTERSTATE NATURAL GAS PIPELINES :27 28 2.1.2 PIPELINE COMPONENTS:2.1.2.1 Pipes:28 2.1.2.2 Compressor Stations:29 2.1.2.3 Metering Stations:30 2.1.2.4 Valves:30 2.1.2.5 Control Stations and SCADA Systems:30 2.1.3 PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION:31 33 2.1.4 PIPELINE INSPECTION AND SAFETY:2.2 CNG: A COMPETITIVE TECHNOLOGY TO LNG FOR THE TRANSPORT OF NATURAL GAS:35 35 2.2.1 COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS:2.2.2 SAGA / MOSS ROSENBERG CNG DESIGN 1976:36 2.2.3 MODERN CNG CARRIER CONCEPTS :36 2.2.4 THE CNG TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY:37 2.2.5 CNG VS. LNG 38 2.2.6 ADVANTAGES OF CNG OVER LNG:40 2.2.7 DISADVANTAGES:40 2.3 TRANSPORTATION BY LNG CARRIERS:41 2.3.1 CONVENTIONAL LNG CARRIER 42 2.3.2 THE BASIC SHIP STRUCTURE:42 2.3.2.2 The Market Where Time Stood Still :43 2.3.2.3 Taller Spheres:43
The future of LNG transportation: Various Propulsion Alternatives by B. Gupta & K. Prasad Available online at Martin's Marine Engineering Page - www.dieselduck.net
2.3.2.4 The Shape Of Things To Come:2.3.2.5 To Boil Off ... Or Not?
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CHAPTER 3 TRADITIONAL STEAM PROPULSION

3.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS:3.2. MARKET REQUIRMENTS:3.2.1 OPERATING ECONOMY 3.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL-FRIENDLINESS:3.2.3 SAFETY:3.2.4 RELIABILITY:3.2.5 REDUNDANCY:3.2.6 MAINTANABILITY:3.2.7 CREWABILITY:3.2.8 OTHERS:3.3 WINDS OF CHANGE:3.4 ALTERNATIVE PROPULSION CONCEPT:-
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46 47 47 48 48 48 48 48 48 49 49 49
CHAPTER 4 SLOW SPEED DIESEL ENGINES

4.1 SLOW SPEED DIESEL WITH BOG RELIQUEFACTION:4.2 GAS-DIESEL ENGINE ALTERNATIVES:4.2.1 ME-GI -- THE DUAL FUEL ENGINE:4.2.2 ECONOMICAL EVALUATION:4.2.3 INVESTMENT COST:4.2.4 EXHAUST EMISSIONS:4.2.5 WHATS SPECIAL IN IT-A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS :4.2.6 REDUCED FUEL CONSUMPTION 4.2.7 OPERATIONAL SAFETY & FLEXIBILITY 4.2.8 FLEXIBILTY REGARDING EXHAUST GAS EMISSION 4.2.9 ADVANTAGES :-
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51 52 56 62 63 63 64 68 68 69 69
CHAPTER 5 DUAL FUEL DIESEL-ELECTRIC PROP.

5.1 AZIPOD PROPULSION - ELECTRIC MARINE PROPULSION:5.2 CRP AZIPOD PROPULSION - HIGH-EFFICIENCY CONTRA-ROTATING PROPULSION SYSTEM 5.3 COMPACT AZIPOD PROPULSION - MARINE ELECTRIC THRUSTER SYSTEM:5.4 FIRST LARGE SIZE DUAL FUEL ELECTRIC CARRIER:5.5 ADVANTAGES:5.6 FOUR GENERATING SETS:5.7 HIGH TOTAL EFFICIENCY:5.8 OUTLINE OF THE DF-ELECTRIC LNG CARRIER:5.8.1 OPERATING ECONOMY:5.8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL-FRIENDLINESS:5.8.3 SAFETY:5.8.4 RELIABILITY:The future of LNG transportation: Various Propulsion Alternatives by B. Gupta & K. Prasad Available online at Martin's Marine Engineering Page - www.dieselduck.net
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72 72 74 74 76 77 77 77 78 79 79 80
5.8.5 REDUNDANCY:5.8.6 MAINTAINABILITY:5.8.7 CREWABILITY:5.8.8 OTHERS:5.9 FUTURE OPERATING PROFILES:5.10 MARKET INTRODUCTION:-
80 80 80 80 80 81
CHAPTER 6
GAS TURBINE ALTERNATIVES
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82 83 83 83 84 84 84 84 84 85 85 85 85 86 86 87
6.1 AERO-DERIVATIVE MARINE GAS TURBINES:6.2 ADVANTAGES OF MARINE AERO-DERIVATIVE GAS TURBINES:6.2.1 OPERATION: 6.2.2 MAINTENANCE: 6.2.3 RELIABILITY AND AVAILABILITY: 6.2.4 ENVIRONMENT: 6.2.5 NOISE AND VIBRATION: 6.2.6 VESSEL DESIGN: 6.2.7 PROPULSION PLANT DESIGN: 6.2.8 INSTALLATION: 6.3 DISADVANTAGES OF MARINE AERO-DERIVATIVE GAS TURBINES:6.3.1 THERMAL EFFICIENCY: 6.3.2 LIQUID FUEL QUALITY RESTRICTIONS:] 6.3.3 INITIAL INVESTMENTS: 6.4 GAS TURBINE MYTHS AND MISUNDERSTANDINGS 6.5 MARINE GAS TURBINE APPLICATIONS
CHAPTER 7
GAS TURBINE ELECTRIC DRIVE
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90 91 91 91 91 92 92 92 92 93 94 95 95 96 96 96 96 97 97 97
7.1 GAS TURBINE ELECTRIC DRIVE COMBINE CYCLE PROPULSION 7.2 THE ADVANTAGES ARE: 7.3 THE DISADVANTAGE ARE: 7.4 NORMAL CRUISING SPEED: 7.4.1 LOADED: 7.4.2 MANEUVERING: 7.4.3 HARBOUR LOAD: 7.4.4 CARGO DISCHARGE: 7.4.5 EMERGENCY SITUATIONS: 7.5 GAS TURBINE ELECTRIC PODDED DRIVE LNG CARRIER 7.6 GAS TURBINE ELECTRIC DRIVE COMBINE CYCLE PROPULSION 7.6.1 THE ADVANTAGES ARE: 7.6.2 THE DISADVANTAGE ARE: 7.7 NORMAL CRUISING SPEED: 7.7.1 LOADED: 7.7.2 IN BALLAST: 7.7.3 MANEUVERING: 7.7.4 HARBOUR LOAD: 7.7.5 CARGO DISCHARGE: 7.7.6 EMERGENCY SITUATIONS:
7.8 INCREASING LNG CARRIER CARGO CAPACITY
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CHAPTER 8 RELIQUIFICATION TECHNOLOGY

8.1 BOIL-OFF CYCLE:8.2 NITROGEN CYCLE:8.3 CONTROL SYSTEM:8.4 REDUNDENCY:8.5 LIQUIFICATION PLANT:-
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100 100 101 102 103
CHAPTER 9
VOYAGE ANALYSIS
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105 105 106 107 107 108 109 111 112 113 113 114
9.1 SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVES 9.2 ONE-TIME INVESTMENT COSTS 9.3 RECURRING VARIABLE COSTS 9.4 WHAT AFFECTS THE VARIABLE COSTS? 9.4.1 OPERATING ROUTE 9.4.2 FUEL FLEXIBILITY 9.4.3 VALUE OF LNG 9.4.4 PRICE OF HFO 9.4.5 MEMBRANE OR MOSS? 9.4.6 SINGLE OR TWIN PROPULSOR? 9.5 SHIPYARD PREMIUM 9.6 CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 10
COMPARATIVE STUDY
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10.1 COMPARISION BETWEEN STEAM, DIESEL & DIESEL-ELECTRIC118 10.2 ECONOMICAL COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT PROPULSION SYSTEMS 121 10.3 RESULTS 122 10.4 CONCLUSIONS 125 10.5 COMPARISON 126
CHAPTER: 1
LIQUIFIED NATURAL GAS

1.1 Introduction Natural Gas is a vital component of the world's supply of energy. It is one of the cleanest, safest, and most useful of all energy sources. Despite its importance, however, there are many misconceptions about natural gas. For instance, the word 'gas' itself has a variety of different uses, and meanings. When we fuel our car, we put 'gas' in it. However, the gasoline that goes into your vehicle, while a fossil fuel itself, is very different from natural gas. The 'gas' in the common barbecue is actually propane, which, while closely associated and commonly found in natural gas, is not really natural gas itself. While commonly grouped in with other fossil fuels and sources of energy, there are many characteristics of natural gas that make it unique. Below is a bit of background information about natural gas, what exactly it is, how it is formed, and how it is found in nature.
1.1.1 What is Natural Gas? Natural gas, in itself, might be considered a very uninteresting gas - it is colorless, shapeless, and odorless in its pure form. Quite uninteresting - except that natural gas is combustible, and when burned it gives off a great deal of energy. Unlike other fossil fuels, however, natural gas is clean burning and emits lower levels of potentially harmful byproducts into the air. We require energy constantly, to heat our homes, cook our food, and generate our electricity. It is this need for energy that has elevated natural gas to such a level of importance in our society, and in our lives.
Natural gas is a combustible mixture of hydrocarbon gases. While natural gas is formed primarily of methane, it can also include ethane, propane, butane and pentane. The composition of natural gas can vary widely, but below is a chart outlining the typical makeup of natural gas before it is refined.
In its purest form, such as the natural gas that is delivered to your home, it is almost pure methane. Methane is a molecule made up of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms, and is referred to as CH4. Ethane, propane, and the other hydrocarbons commonly associated with natural gas have slightly different chemical formulas, which can be seen here.
Natural gas is considered 'dry' when it is almost pure methane, having had most of the other commonly associated hydrocarbons removed. When other hydrocarbons are present, the natural gas is 'wet'.
Found in reservoirs underneath the earth, natural gas is commonly associated with oil deposits. Production companies search for evidence of these reservoirs by using sophisticated technology that helps to find the location of the natural gas, and drill wells in the earth where it is likely to be found. Once brought from underground, the natural gas is refined to remove impurities like water, other gases, sand, and other compounds. Some hydrocarbons are removed and sold separately, including propane and butane. Other impurities are also removed, like hydrogen sulfide (the refining of which can produce sulfur, which is then also sold separately). After refining, the clean natural gas is transmitted through a network of pipelines, thousands of miles of which exist in the United States alone. From these pipelines, natural gas is delivered to its point of use. Natural gas can be measured in a number of different ways. As a gas, it can be measured by the volume it takes up at normal temperatures and pressures, commonly expressed in cubic feet. Production and distribution companies commonly measure natural gas in thousands of cubic feet (Mcf), millions of cubic feet (MMcf), or trillions of cubic feet (Tcf). While measuring by volume is useful, natural gas can also be measured as a source of energy. Like other forms of energy, natural gas is commonly measured and expressed in British thermal units (Btu). One Btu is the amount of natural gas that will produce enough energy to heat one pound of water by one degree at normal pressure. To give an idea, one cubic foot of natural gas contains about 1,027 Btus. When natural gas is delivered to a residence, it is measured by the gas utility in 'therms' for billing purposes. A therm is equivalent to 100,000 Btu's, or just over 97 cubic feet, of natural gas. 1.2 The Formation of Natural Gas Natural gas is a fossil fuel. Like oil and coal, this means that it is, essentially, the remains of plants and animals and microorganisms that lived millions and millions of years ago. But how do these once living organisms become an inanimate mixture of gases? There are many different theories as to the origins of fossil fuels. The most widely accepted theory says that fossil fuels are formed when organic matter (such as the remains of a plant or animal) is compressed under the earth, at very high pressure for a very long time. This is referred to as thermogenic methane. Similar to the formation of oil, thermogenic methane is formed from organic particles that are covered in mud and other sediment. Over time, more and more sediment and mud and other debris are piled on top of the organic matter. This sediment and debris puts a great deal of pressure on the organic matter, which compresses it. This compression, combined with high temperatures found deep underneath the earth, break down the carbon bonds in the organic matter. As one gets deeper and deeper under the earths crust, the temperature gets higher and higher. At low temperatures (shallower deposits), more oil is produced relative to natural
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gas. At higher temperatures, however, more natural gas is created, as opposed to oil. That is why natural gas is usually associated with oil in deposits that are 1 to 2 miles below the earth's crust. Deeper deposits, very far underground, usually contain primarily natural gas, and in many cases, pure methane. Natural gas can also be formed through the transformation of organic matter by tiny microorganisms. This type of methane is referred to as biogenic methane. Methanogens, tiny methane producing microorganisms, chemically break down organic matter to produce methane. These microorganisms are commonly found in areas near the surface of the earth that are void of oxygen. These microorganisms also live in the intestines of most animals, including humans. Formation of methane in this manner usually takes place close to the surface of the earth, and the methane produced is usually lost into the atmosphere. In certain circumstances, however, this methane can be trapped underground, recoverable as natural gas. An example of biogenic methane is landfill gas. Waste-containing landfills produce a relatively large amount of natural gas, from the decomposition of the waste materials that they contain. New technologies are allowing this gas to be harvested and used to add to the supply of natural gas. A third way in which methane (and natural gas) may be formed is through a biogenic process. Extremely deep under the earth's crust, there exist hydrogenrich gases and carbon molecules. As these gases gradually rise towards the surface of the earth, they may interact with minerals that also exist underground, in the absence of oxygen. This interaction may result in a reaction, forming elements and compounds that are found in the atmosphere (including nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon, and water). If these gases are under very high pressure as they move towards the surface of the earth, they are likely to form methane deposits, similar to thermogenic methane. 1.3 Natural Gas Under the Earth Although there are several ways that methane, and thus natural gas, may be formed, it is usually found underneath the surface of the earth. As natural gas has a low density, once formed it will rise towards the surface of the earth through loose, shale type rock and other material. Most of this methane will simply rise to the surface and dissipate into the air. However, a great deal of this methane will rise up into geological formations that 'trap' the gas under the ground. These formations are made up of layers of porous, sedimentary rock (kind of like a sponge, that soaks up and contains the gas), with a denser, impermeable layer of rock on top. This impermeable rock traps the natural gas under the ground. If these formations are large enough, they can trap a great deal of natural gas underground, in what is known as a reservoir. There are a number of different types of these formations, but the most common is created when the impermeable sedimentary rock forms a 'dome' shape, like an umbrella that catches all of the natural gas that is floating to the surface.
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There are a number of ways that this sort of 'dome' may be formed. For instance, faults are a common location for oil and natural gas deposits to exist. A fault occurs when the normal sedimentary layers sort of 'split' vertically, so that impermeable rock shifts down to trap natural gas in the more permeable limestone or sandstone layers. Essentially, the geological formation which layers impermeable rock over more porous, oil and gas rich sediment has the potential to form a reservoir. The picture below shows how natural gas and oil can be trapped under impermeable sedimentary rock, in what is known as an anticlinal formation. To successfully bring these fossil fuels to the surface, a hole must be drilled through the impermeable rock to release the fossil fuels under pressure. Note that in reservoirs that contain oil and gas, the gas, being the least dense, is found closest to the surface, with the oil beneath it, typically followed by a certain amount of water. With natural gas trapped under the earth in this fashion, it can be recovered by drilling a hole through the impermeable rock. Gas in these reservoirs is typically under pressure, allowing it to escape from the reservoir on its own. Natural gas is nothing new. In fact, most of the natural gas that is brought out from under the ground is millions and millions of years old. However, it was not until recently that methods for obtaining this gas, bringing it to the surface, and putting it to use were developed. Before there was an understanding of what natural gas was, it posed somewhat of a mystery to man. Sometimes, such things as lightning strikes would ignite natural gas that was escaping from under the earth's crust. This would create a fire coming from the earth, burning the natural gas as it seeped out from underground. These fires puzzled most early civilizations, and were the root of
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much myth and superstition. One of the most famous of these types of flames was found in ancient Greece, on Mount Parnassus approximately 1,000 B.C. A goat herdsman came across what looked like a 'burning spring', a flame rising from a fissure in the rock. The Greeks, believing it to be of divine origin, built a temple on the flame. This temple housed a priestess who was known as the Oracle of Delphi, giving out prophecies she claimed were inspired by the flame.
These types of springs became prominent in the religions of India, Greece, and Persia. Unable to explain where these fires came from, they were often regarded as divine, or supernatural. It wasn't until about 500 B.C. that the Chinese discovered the potential to use these fires to their advantage. Finding places where gas was seeping to the surface, the Chinese formed crude pipelines out of bamboo shoots to transport the gas, where it was used to boil sea water, separating the salt and making it drinkable. Britain was the first country to commercialize the use of natural gas. Around 1785, natural gas produced from coal was used to light houses, as well as streetlights. Manufactured natural gas of this type (as opposed to naturally occurring gas) was first brought to the United States in 1816, when it was used to light the streets of Baltimore, Maryland. However, this manufactured gas was much less efficient, and less environmentally friendly, than modern natural gas that comes from underground. Naturally occurring natural gas was discovered and identified in America as early as 1626, when French explorers discovered natives igniting gases that were seeping into and around Lake Erie. The American natural gas industry got its beginnings in this area. In 1859, Colonel Edwin Drake (a former railroad
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conductor who adopted the title 'Colonel' to impress the townspeople) dug the first well. Drake hit oil and natural gas at 69 feet below the surface of the earth.
Most in the industry characterize this well as the beginning of the natural gas industry in America. A two-inch diameter pipeline was built, running 5 and
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miles from the well to the village of Titusville, Pennsylvania. The construction of this pipeline proved that natural gas could be brought safely and relatively easily from its underground source to be used for practical purposes. In 1821, the first well specifically intended to obtain natural gas was dug in Fredonia, New York, by William Hart. After noticing gas bubbles rising to the surface of a creek, Hart dug a 27 foot well to try and obtain a larger flow of gas to the surface. Hart is regarded by many as the 'father of natural gas' in America. Expanding on Hart's work, the Fredonia Gas Light Company was eventually formed, becoming being the first American natural gas company. During most of the 19th century, natural gas was used almost exclusively as a source of light. Without a pipeline infrastructure, it was difficult to transport the gas very far, or into homes to be used for heating or cooking. Most of the natural gas produced in this era was manufactured from coal, as opposed to transport from a well. Near the end of the 19th century, with the rise of electricity, natural gas lights were converted to electric lights. This led producers of natural gas to look for new uses for their product. In 1885, Robert Bunsen invented what is now known as the Bunsen burner. He managed to create a device that mixed natural gas with air in the right proportions, creating a flame that could be safely used for cooking and heating.
The invention of the Bunsen burner opened up new opportunities for the use of natural gas in America, and throughout the world. The invention of temperature-
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regulating thermostatic devices allowed for better use of the heating potential of natural gas, allowing the temperature of the flame to be adjusted and monitored. Without any way to transport it effectively, natural gas discovered pre-WWII was usually just allowed to vent into the atmosphere, or burnt, when found alongside coal and oil, or simply left in the ground when found alone. One of the first lengthy pipelines was constructed in 1891. This pipeline was 120 miles long, and carried natural gas from wells in central Indiana to the city of Chicago. However, this early pipeline was very rudimentary, and was not very efficient at transporting natural gas. It wasn't until the 1920's that any significant effort was put into building a pipeline infrastructure. However, it wasn't until after the World War II that welding techniques, pipe rolling, and metallurgical advances allowed for the construction of reliable pipelines. This post-war pipeline construction boom lasted well into the 60's, and allowed for the construction of thousands of miles of pipeline. Once the transportation of natural gas was possible, new uses for natural gas were discovered. These included using natural gas to heat homes and operate appliances such as water heaters and oven ranges. Industry began to use natural gas in manufacturing and processing plants. Also, natural gas was used to heat boilers used to generate electricity. The transportation infrastructure had made natural gas easy to obtain, and it was becoming an increasingly popular form of energy. 1.4 How Much Natural Gas is there? There is an abundance of natural gas in North America, but it is a non-renewable resource, the formation of which takes thousands and possibly millions of years. Therefore, understanding the availability of our supply of natural gas is important as we increase our use of this fossil fuel. This section will provide a framework for understanding just how much natural gas there is in the ground available for our use, as well as links to the most recent statistics concerning the available supply of natural gas. As natural gas is essentially irreplaceable (at least with current technology), it is important to have an idea of how much natural gas is left in the ground for us to use. However, this becomes complicated by the fact that no one really knows exactly how much natural gas exists until it is extracted. Measuring natural gas in the ground is no easy job, and it involves a great deal of inference and estimation. With new technologies, these estimates are becoming more and more reliable; however, they are still subject to revision. A common misconception about natural gas is that we are running out, and quickly. However, this couldn't be further from the truth. Many people believe that price spikes, such as were seen in the 1970's, and more recently in the winter of 2000, indicate that we are running out of natural gas. The two aforementioned periods
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of high prices were not caused by waning natural gas resources - rather, there were other forces at work in the marketplace. In fact, there is a vast amount of natural gas estimated to still be in the ground. In order to understand exactly what these estimates mean, and their importance, it is useful first to learn a bit of industry terminology for the different types of estimates. 1.4.1 Natural Gas Resource Estimates Below are three estimates of natural gas reserves. The first, compiled by the Energy Information Administration (referred to as the EIA), estimates that there are 1,190.62 Tcf of technically recoverable natural gas in the United States.
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This includes undiscovered, unproved, and unconventional natural gas. As can be seen from the table, proved reserves make up a very small proportion of the total recoverable natural gas resources. The following table includes an estimate of natural gas resources compiled by the National Petroleum Council in 1999 in its report Natural Gas - Meeting the Challenges of the Nation's Growing Natural Gas Demand. Information on this report may be found here.
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This estimate places U.S. natural gas resources higher than the EIA, at 1,779 Tcf remaining. It is important to note that different methodologies and systems of classification are used in various estimates that are completed. There is no single way that every industry player quantifies estimates of natural gas. Therefore, it is important to delve into the assumptions and methodology behind each study to gain a complete understanding of the estimate itself. There are a myriad of different industry participants that formulate their own estimates regarding natural gas supplies, such as production companies, independent geologists, the government, and environmental groups, to name a few. While this leads to a wealth of information, it also leads to a number of difficulties. Each estimate is based on a different set of assumptions, completed with different tools, and even referred to with different language. It is thus difficult to get a definitive answer to the question of how much natural gas exists. In addition, since these are all essentially educated guesses as to the amount of natural gas in the earth, there are constant revisions being made. New technology, combined with increased knowledge of particular areas and reservoirs mean that these estimates are in a constant state of flux. Further complicating the scenario is the fact that there are no universally accepted definitions for the terms that are used differently by geologists, engineers, accountants, and others. 1.4.2 Where Are These Reserves? Most of the natural gas that is found in North America is concentrated in relatively distinct geographical areas, or basins. Given this distribution of natural gas deposits, those states which are located on top of a major basin have the highest level of natural gas reserves. As can be seen from the map below, U.S. natural gas reserves are very concentrated around Texas and the Gulf of Mexico. 1.5 World Natural Gas Reserves
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The EIA, in conjunction with the Oil and Gas Journal and World Oil publications, estimates world proved natural gas reserves to be around 5,210.8 Tcf. As can be seen from the graph, most of these reserves are located in the Middle East with 1,836.2 Tcf, or 34 percent of the world total, and Europe and the Former U.S.S.R. with 2158.7, or 42 percent of total world reserves. 1.6 Uses Of Natural Gas For hundreds of years, natural gas has been known as a very useful substance. The Chinese discovered a very long time ago that the energy in natural gas could be harnessed, and used to heat water. In the early days of the natural gas industry, the gas was mainly used to light streetlamps, and the occasional house. However, with much improved distribution channels and technological advancements, natural gas is being used in ways never thought possible.
There are so many different applications for this fossil fuel that it is hard to provide an exhaustive list of everything it is used for. And no doubt, new uses are being discovered all the time. Natural gas has many applications, commercially, in your home, in industry, and even in the transportation sector! While the uses described here are not exhaustive, they may help to show just how many things natural gas can do.
According to the Energy Information Administration, energy from natural gas accounts for 24 percent of total energy consumed in the United States, making it a vital component of the nation's energy supply.
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Natural gas is used across all sectors, in varying amounts. The graph above gives an idea of the proportion of natural gas use per sector. The industrial sector accounts for the greatest proportion of natural gas use in the World, with the residential sector consuming the second greatest quantity of natural gas. 1.7 What is LNG? Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas that has been cooled to the point that it condenses to a liquid, which occurs at a temperature of approximately -256 deg F (-161 deg C) and at atmospheric pressure. Liquefaction reduces the volume by approximately 600 times thus making it more economical to transport between continents in specially designed ocean vessels, whereas traditional pipeline transportation systems would be less economically attractive and could be technically or politically infeasible. Thus, LNG technology makes natural gas available throughout the world. x Natural gas liquefaction dates back to the 19th century when British chemist and physicist Michael Faraday experimented with liquefying different types of gases, including natural gas. German engineer Karl Von Linde built the first practical compressor refrigeration machine in Munich in 1873. The first LNG plant was built in West Virginia in 1912. It began operation in 1917. The first commercial liquefaction plant was built in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1941. The LNG was stored in tanks at atmospheric pressure. The liquefaction of natural gas raised the possibility of gas transportation to distant destinations.
To make LNG available for use, energy companies must invest in a number of different operations that are highly linked and dependent upon one another. The major stages of the LNG value chain, excluding pipeline operations between the stages, consist of the following: Exploration to find natural gas in the earths crust and production of the gas for delivery to gas users. Most of the time natural gas is discovered during the search for oil. Liquefaction to convert natural gas into a liquid state so that it can be transported in ships. Shipping the LNG in special purpose vessels.
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Storage and Regasification, to convert the LNG stored in specially made storage tanks, from the liquefied phase to the gaseous phase, ready to be moved to the final destination through the natural gas pipeline system.
1.8 Properties x x x Extremely low temperature: minus 260F (minus 162C). LNG will float on water - Specific gravity of LNG is about 0.45. - Slightly less than half that of water. Odorless and colorless - LNG looks like boiling water. When exposed to atmospheric temperatures and pressure, it vaporizes to about 600 times its liquid volume. Nontoxic, non-corrosive. Vapor Dissipation - As the vapor warms to minus 160F (minus 107C); it becomes lighter than air and will dissipate. The natural gas vaporized from LNG can cause asphyxiation in an unventilated confinement. Explosion limit of LNG: 5 to 15%. Minimum ignition energy: 0.28mJ. Latent heat of vapourization: 510kJ/kg.
x x
x x x
1.9 Some interesting facts about lng x x x x x According to World Oil, for the year 2001, worldwide proven reserves of natural gas showed an increase of 8.4 percent over year 2000. According to LNGOne World 57, new LNG vessels were on order as of Dec 2002. The LNG tanker fleet size is estimated to continue to grow to 193 tankers by 2006. India to have 10 new LNG vessels by 2010. Orders received last year in marine shipbuilding industries, South Korea decreased relatively for almost all kinds of ships, except those for LNG carriers, which showed a 290% increase. The above data shows that worlds is growing awareness in the field of natural gases. Now the question arises why there is so much increase in its demand. The solution can be obtained by comparative study of various resources of energy of which natural gas is also one. The prevailing energy resources are fast loosing its popularity in the modern world. Oil has been harshly criticized as pollutant Coal, having high sulphur content, is considered as bad as worst. Nuclear power has lately been considered as being long-term solution to the worlds energy problems, but even nuclear power has
x x x x
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come under attack, and in many states, building programs for new power station have been held up because of safety reasons. Moreover, CO2 emission control from major fuels is recognized as the essential issue related to the greenhouse effect, especially since demand for energy increasing.
Concern over worlds diminishing energy resources coupled with a growing awareness of the need to protect the environment, led to an upsurge interest in natural gas and construction of special natural gas carriers. These conflicting demands for more energy and cleaner environment present a considerable problem and natural gas promises to solve both of them, thus it was known as a glamour fuel of 1970s. Until well into the 20th century, it was considered a nuisance and a byproduct of crude oil production. Only when in remote areas of Wyoming, huge reserves of gas were discovered, nobody thought it was one of the energies with a more than promising future. The proven reserves of natural gas at the end of 2001 amounted to 170 trillion cubic meter, which are equivalent to 153-milliard toe. The petroleum reserves at the same date, amounted to 142.6 milliard toe, so, we see that the usable reserves of gas are higher than those ones of petroleum.
1.10 Need For Transportation: x x x By geographic areas, it is found in particular that, The former USSR, found particularly, the Russian Federation and Turkmenistan have nearly one third of the world reserves. Iran, Qatar, Australia, Papua New Guinea, the United States, and in Africa; Algeria, Nigeria, Libya and Egypt gather more than 90% of the proven reserves of this continent. The OPEC countries have 45% of the world natural gas resources, much lower that those they have in crude oil reserves, which amount to 78%. Moreover, there are large reserves of natural gas in areas for which there is no significant market. Such hydrocarbon reserves are stranded in North Africa, West Africa, South America, Caribbean, the Middle East, Indonesia, Malaysia, Northwestern Australia and Alaska. In addition, markets for these natural gases include Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Europe and the U.S.
Therefore, there is a need for transportation of natural gases to areas where it is scarce from areas where it is in abundance.
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The future of LNG Transportation: Propulsion alternatives by B. Gupta & K. Prasad Available online, at Martin's Marine Engineering Page - www.dieselduck.ca
Illustration 1:According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration (U.S. EIA), natural gas production in the U.S. is predicted to grow from 19.1 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) in 2000 to 28.5 Tcf in 2020.The total U.S. Demand for natural gas is expected to rise from 2.8 Tcf in 2000 to about 33.8 Tcf by 2020 adjusted for forecasted gains in energy efficiency and conservation). These projections suggest that the U.S. could face a gap of 5Tcf by 2020. Hence, she needs to import natural gas to meet her requirements. Where natural gas supply and the intended consumer are reasonably close, pipelines can be used for transporting the gas. However, as most of the world supply is remote from the consumer areas, shipboard carriage is the only alternative. Another aspect of the carriage by pipeline is that the government and private companies are reluctant to become involved with networks, which cross the territory of the countries other than their own. Illustration 2:From the Russian Federation to Portugal, it is necessary to pass through at least four different countries. Therefore it can be said that shipping transport of LNG is not only growing, but taking more and more importance, as the sea transport, offers the nations the strategic advantages such as x x Non-dependence on pipelines, built over many different lands of different nations. The LNG trade gives more freedom and less dependence on third parties for importers.
LNG offers greater trade flexibility than pipeline transport, allowing cargoes of natural gas to be delivered where the need is greatest and the commercial terms are most competitive. The figure below shows that as the distance over which natural gas must be transported increases, usage of LNG has economic advantages over usage of pipelines. Liquefying natural gas and shipping it becomes cheaper than transporting natural gas in offshore pipelines for distances of more than 700 miles or in onshore pipelines for distances greater than 2,200 miles.
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CHAPTER: 2
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
2.1 Pipe lines:The efficient and effective movement of natural gas from producing regions to consumption regions requires an extensive and elaborate transportation system. In many instances, natural gas produced from a particular well will have to travel a great distance to reach its point of use. The transportation system for natural gas consists of a complex network of pipelines, designed to quickly and efficiently transport natural gas from its origin, to areas of high natural gas demand. Transportation of natural gas is closely linked to its storage, as well; should the natural gas being transported not be required at that time, it can be put into storage facilities for when it is needed.
There are essentially three major types of pipelines along the transportation route: the gathering system, the interstate pipeline, and the distribution system. The gathering system consists of low pressure, low diameter pipelines that transport raw natural gas from the wellhead to the processing plant. Should natural gas from a particular well have high sulfur and carbon dioxide contents (sour gas), a specialized sour gas gathering pipe must be installed. Sour gas is extremely corrosive and dangerous, thus its transportation from the wellhead to the sweetening plant must be done carefully. Pipelines can be characterized as interstate or intrastate. Interstate pipelines carry natural gas across state boundaries, in some cases clear across the country. Intrastate pipelines, on the other hand, transport natural gas within a particular state. This section will cover the fundamentals of interstate natural gas
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pipelines, but the technical and operational details discussed are essentially the same for intrastate pipelines. Natural gas pipelines are subject to regulatory oversight, which in many ways determines the manner in which pipeline companies must operate.
2.1.1 Interstate Natural Gas Pipelines :The interstate natural gas pipeline network transports processed natural gas from processing plants in producing regions to those areas with high natural gas requirements, particularly large, populated urban areas. As can be seen, the pipeline network extends across the entire country.
Interstate pipelines are the 'highways' of natural gas transmission. Natural gas that is transported through interstate pipelines travels at high pressure in the pipeline, at pressures anywhere from 200 to 1500 pounds per square inch (psi). This reduces the volume of the natural gas being transported (by up to 600 times), as well as providing propellant force to move the natural gas through the pipeline. This section will cover the components of the interstate pipeline system, the construction of pipelines, and pipeline inspection and safety.
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2.1.2 Pipeline Components:Interstate pipelines consist of a number of components which ensure the efficiency and reliability that is needed from a system that delivers such an important energy source year round, twenty four hours a day, and consist of a number of different components.
2.1.2.1 Pipes:Pipelines can measure anywhere from 6 to 48 inches in diameter, although certain component pipe sections can consist of small diameter pipe, as small as 0.5 inches in diameter. However, this small diameter pipe is usually used only in gathering and distribution systems. Mainline pipes, the principle pipeline in a given system, are usually between 16 and 48 inches in diameter. Lateral pipelines, which deliver natural gas to or from the mainline, are typically between 6 and 16 inches in diameter. Most major interstate pipelines are between 24 and 36 inches in diameter. The actual pipeline itself, commonly called 'line pipe', consists of a strong carbon steel material, engineered to meet standards set by the American Petroleum Institute (API). Pipelines are produced in steel mills, which are sometimes specialized to produce only pipeline. There are two different production techniques, one for small diameter pipes and one for large diameter pipes. For large diameter pipes, from 20 to 42 inches in diameter, the pipes are produced from sheets of metal which are folded into a tube shape, with the ends welded together to form a pipe section. Small diameter pipe, on the other hand, can be produced seamlessly. This involves heating a metal bar to very high temperatures, then punching a hole through the middle of the bar to produce a hollow tube. In either case, the pipe is tested before being shipped from the steel mill, to ensure that it can meet the pressure and strength standards for transporting natural gas. Line pipe is also covered with a specialized coating to ensure that it does not corrode once placed in the ground. The purpose of the coating is to protect the
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pipe from moisture, which causes corrosion and rusting. There are a number of different coating techniques. In the past, pipelines were coated with a specialized coal tar enamel. Today, pipes are often protected with what is known as a fusion bond epoxy, which gives the pipe a noticeable light blue color. In addition, cathodic protection is often used; which is a technique of running an electric current through the pipe to ward off corrosion and rusting.
2.1.2.2 Compressor Stations:As mentioned, natural gas is highly pressurized as it travels through an interstate pipeline. To ensure that the natural gas flowing through any one pipeline remains pressurized, compression of this natural gas is required periodically along the pipe. This is accomplished by compressor stations, usually placed at 40 to 100 mile intervals along the pipeline. The natural gas enters the compressor station, where it is compressed by a turbine, motor, or engine.
Turbine compressors gain their energy by using up a small proportion of the natural gas that they compress. The turbine itself serves to operate a centrifugal compressor, which contains a type of fan that compresses and pumps the natural gas through the pipeline. Some compressor stations are operated by using an electric motor to turn the same type of centrifugal compressor. This type of compression does not require the use of any of the natural gas from the pipe, however it does require a reliable source of electricity nearby. Reciprocating natural gas engines are also used to power some compressor stations. These engines resemble a very large automobile engine, and are powered by natural gas from the pipeline. The combustion of the gas powers pistons on the outside of the engine, which serves to compress the natural gas. In addition to compressing natural gas, compressor stations also usually contain some type of liquid separator, much like the ones used to dehydrate natural gas during its processing. Usually, these separators consist of scrubbers and filters that capture any liquids or other undesirable particles from the natural gas in the pipeline. Although natural gas in pipelines is considered 'dry' gas, it is not uncommon for a certain amount of water and hydrocarbons to condense out of
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the gas stream while in transit. The liquid separators at compressor stations ensure that the natural gas in the pipeline is as pure as possible, and usually filters the gas prior to compression.
2.1.2.3 Metering Stations:In addition to compressing natural gas to reduce its volume and push it through the pipe, metering stations are placed periodically along interstate natural gas pipelines. These stations allow pipeline companies to monitor and manage the natural gas in their pipes. Essentially, these metering stations measure the flow of gas along the pipeline, and allow pipeline companies to 'track' natural gas as it flows along the pipeline. These metering stations employ specialized meters to measure the natural gas as it flows through the pipeline, without impeding its movement.
2.1.2.4 Valves:Interstate pipelines include a great number of valves along their entire length. These valves work like gateways; they are usually open and allow natural gas to flow freely, or they can be used to stop gas flow along a certain section of pipe. There are many reasons why a pipeline may need to restrict gas flow in certain areas. For example, if a section of pipe requires replacement or maintenance, valves on either end of that section of pipe can be closed to allow engineers and work crews safe access. These large valves can be placed every 5 to 20 miles along the pipeline, and are subject to regulation by safety codes.
2.1.2.5 Control Stations and SCADA Systems:Natural gas pipeline companies have customers on both ends of the pipeline the producers and processors that input gas into the pipeline, and the consumers and local distribution companies that take gas out of the pipeline. In order to manage the natural gas that enters the pipeline, and to ensure that all customers receive timely delivery of their portion of this gas, sophisticated control systems are required to monitor the gas as it travels through all sections of what could be a very lengthy pipeline network. To accomplish this task of monitoring and controlling the natural gas that is traveling through the pipeline, centralized gas control stations that collect, assimilate, and manage data received from monitoring and compressor stations all along the pipe. Most of the data that is received by a control station is provided by Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. These systems are essentially sophisticated communications systems that take measurements and collect data along the pipeline (usually in a metering or compressor stations and valves) and transmit them to the centralized control station. Flow rate through the pipeline, operational status, pressure, and temperature readings may all be used to assess the status of the pipeline at any one time. These systems also work in
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real-time, meaning that there is little lag time between the measurements taken along the pipeline and their transmission to the control station. This information, relayed to a centralized control station, allows pipeline engineers to know exactly what is happening along the pipeline at all times. This allows quick reactions to equipment malfunctions, leaks, or any other unusual activity along the pipeline. Some SCADA systems also incorporate the ability to remotely operate certain equipment along the pipeline, including compressor stations, allowing engineers in a centralized control center to immediately and easily adjust flow rates in the pipeline.
2.1.3 Pipeline Construction:As natural gas use increases, so does the need to have transportation infrastructure in place to supply the increased demand. This means that pipeline companies are constantly assessing the flow of natural gas across the U.S., and building pipelines to allow transportation of natural gas to those areas that are underserved.
Constructing natural gas pipelines requires a great deal of planning and preparation. In addition to actually building the pipeline, several permitting and regulatory processes must be completed. In many cases, prior to beginning the permitting and land access processes, natural gas pipeline companies prepare a feasibility analysis to ensure that an acceptable route for the pipeline exists that provides the least impact to the environment and public infrastructure already in place. Assuming a pipeline company obtains all the required permits and satisfies all of the regulatory requirements, construction of the pipe may begin. Extensive
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surveying of the intended route is completed, both aerial and land based, to ensure that no surprises pop up during actual assembly of the pipeline. Installing a pipeline is much like an assembly line process, with sections of the pipeline being completed in stages. First, the path of the pipeline is cleared of all removable impediments, including trees, boulders, brush, and anything else that may prohibit the construction. Once the pipeline's path has been cleared sufficiently to allow construction equipment to gain access, sections of pipes are laid out along the intended path, a process called 'stringing' the pipe. These pipe sections are commonly from 40 to 80 feet long, and are specific to their destination. That is, certain areas have different requirements for coating material and pipe thickness.
Once the pipe is in place, trenches are dug alongside the laid out pipe. These trenches are typically 5 to 6 feet deep, as the regulations require the pipe to be at least 30 inches below the surface. In certain areas, however, including road crossings and bodies of water, the pipe is buried even deeper. Once the trenches are dug, the pipe is assembled and contoured. This includes welding the sections of pipe together into one continuous pipeline, and bending it slightly, if needed, to fit the contour of the pipelines path. Coating is applied to the ends of the pipes (the coating applied at a coating mill typically leaves the ends of the pipe clean, so as not to interfere with welding), and the entire coating of the pipe is inspected to ensure that it is free from defects. Once the pipe is welded, bent, and coated, it can be lowered into the previously dug trenches. This is done with specialized tracked construction equipment acting in tandem to lift the pipe relatively uniformly and lower it into the trench. Once lowered into the ground, the trench is filled in carefully, to ensure that the 32
pipe and its coating do not incur damage. The last step in pipeline construction is the hydrostatic test. This consists of running water, at pressures higher than will be needed for natural gas transportation, through the entire length of the pipe. This serves as a test to ensure that the pipeline is strong enough, and absent of any leaks of fissures, before natural gas is pumped through the pipeline. Laying pipe across streams or rivers can be accomplished in one of two ways. Open cut crossing involves the digging of trenches on the floor of the river to house the pipe. When this is done, the pipe itself is usually fitted with a concrete casing, which both ensures that the pipe stays on the bottom of the river, and add an extra protective coating to prevent any natural gas leaks into the water. Alternately, a form of directional drilling may be employed, in which a sort of 'tunnel' is drilled under the river through which the pipe may be passed. The same techniques are used for road crossings - either an open trench is dug up across the road and replaced once the pipe is installed, or a tunnel may be drilled underneath the road. Once the pipeline has been installed, and covered up, extensive efforts are taken to restore the pipeline's pathway to its original state, or to mitigate for any environmental or other impacts that may have occurred during the construction process. This often includes replacing topsoil, fences, irrigation canals, and anything else that may have been removed or upset during the construction process.
2.1.4 Pipeline Inspection and Safety:-
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In order to ensure the efficient and safe operation of the extensive network of natural gas pipelines, pipeline companies routinely inspect their pipelines for corrosion and defects. This is done through the use of sophisticated pieces of equipment known as pigs. Pigs are intelligent robotic devices that are propelled down pipelines to evaluate the interior of the pipe. Pigs can test pipe thickness, and roundness, check for signs of corrosion, detect minute leaks, and any other defect along the interior of the pipeline that may either impede the flow of gas, or pose a potential safety risk for the operation of the pipeline. Sending a pig down a pipeline is fittingly known as 'pigging' the pipeline. In addition to inspection with pigs, there are a number of safety precautions and procedures in place to minimize the risk of accidents. In fact, the transportation of natural gas is one of the safest ways of transporting energy, mostly due to the fact that the infrastructure is fixed, and buried underground. According to the Department of Transportation (DOT), pipelines are the safest method of transporting petroleum and natural gas. While there are in excess of 100 deaths per year associated with electric transmission lines, according to the DOT's Office of Pipeline Safety in 2001, there were 2 deaths associated with transmission pipelines, and 5 deaths associated with distribution systems. To learn more about pipeline safety, visit the DOT's Office of Pipeline Safety here. A few of the safety precautions associated with natural gas pipelines include: Aerial Patrols - Planes are used to ensure no construction activities are taking place too close to the route of the pipeline, particularly in residential areas. Unauthorized construction and digging is the primary threat to pipeline safety, according to INGAA Leak Detection - Natural gas detecting equipment is periodically used by pipeline personnel on the surface to check for leaks. This is especially important in areas where the natural gas is not odorized. Pipeline Markers - Signs on the surface above natural gas pipelines indicate the presence of underground pipelines to the public, to reduce the chance of any interference with the pipeline. Gas Sampling - Routine sampling of the natural gas in pipelines ensures its quality, and may also indicate corrosion of the interior of the pipeline, or the influx of contaminants. Preventative Maintenance - This involves the testing of valves and the removal of surface impediments to pipeline inspection. Emergency Response - Pipeline companies have extensive emergency response teams that train for the possibility of a wide range of potential accidents and emergencies.
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The One Call Program - All of the states have instituted what is known as a 'one call' program, which provides excavators, construction crews, and anyone interested in digging into the ground around a pipeline with a single phone number that may be called when any excavation activity is planned. This call alerts the pipeline company, which may flag the area, or even send representatives to monitor the digging. These are but a few of the efforts undertaken by the pipeline industry to ensure the safety of the public and the environment, and to protect the integrity of their pipelines
2.2 CNG: A Competitive Technology to LNG for the Transport of Natural Gas:Existing means of transporting natural gas consist primarily of pipelines and LNG. Pipelines account for 75%, with LNG making for the rest. Pipelines are the obvious means for the onshore transport of natural gas. But for offshore transport, as the water depth and distance between sources and users increase, pipelines become economically unattractive. LNG provides then an appropriate way of delivering natural gas from offshore. However, because of the large upfront investment, LNG requires large reserves of natural gas near the facilities to support a LNG project and get acceptable returns capital investment Compressed natural gas (CNG) technology provides an effective way for shorterdistance transport of the gas. The technology is aimed at monetizing offshore reserves, which cannot be produced because of unavailability of pipeline or because the LNG option is very costly. Technically the technology is easy to deploy with less requirements for facilities and infrastructure.
2.2.1 Compressed Natural Gas:Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as a mode of transport of natural gas is now pursued with renewed interests. Earlier attempts in the 1960s to commercialize the technology were made with technical difficulties and along with the requirement of heavy investments made the commercial application of the technology unfeasible. Ocean Transport Pressure System 1968
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9 CNG at 80 bar and -600C 9 Approved by USCG 9 Prototype built and tested in New Jersey, but not found to be commercial
2.2.2 Saga / Moss Rosenberg CNG Design 1976: CNG carrier capable of carrying a mixture of gas and oil at 100 bar Idea conceived by Saga Petroleum in 1976 Concept drawings developed by Saga and Moss Rosenberg yard of Norway Loading directly from sub-sea wells using well pressure for loading and water for discharging the cargo. 18,000 m3in 280 bottles
2.2.3 Modern CNG Carrier Concepts :With present developments in materials and their applications and CNGs promising outlook in handling and marketing associated gas and the exploitation of stranded reserves, have renewed the interest in commercializing the technology. One of the proponents of the CNG technology in the early 1990s was Cran & Stennings Technology Inc. that proposed a wellknown concept, Coselletm. The idea seeks to reduce the manufacturing cost of the gas containment system. Spooling small diameter (6 inch) coiled tubing into large carrousels achieves the purpose. The gas is pressured up to 3000 psi at ambient temperatures. Similar methodology is used by others namely Trans Ocean Gas, a Canadian enterprise, and Knutsen O.A.S Shipping of Norway with varying characteristics of the containment system7. Another approach to CNG is espoused Enersea Transport LLC, They developed the VOTRANStm concept in which the natural gas is compressed and cooled to lower temperatures6. This reduces the volume of the compressed gas compared to just compressing it at ambient temperatures. At the lower temperatures of 0 to 40oF the process works at lower pressures than at ambient temperatures. Many concepts are proposed for transportation of CNG but most of them are based on transportation in pipeline/pressure vessels x x x x x x EnerSea(steel, vertical pipes, 130 bar, -29C) Coselle(Williams) (steel, coiled, 275 bar, ambient) Knutsen (steel, vertical pipes, 250 bar, ambient) CETech: (Statoil, Teekay, Hegh) steel, horizontal pipes, 200-250 bar, ambient) TransCanada(wrapped steel liner) Trans Ocean Gas (composite)
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2.2.4 The CNG Transport Technology:The technology is relatively simple. Natural gas, originally at certain temperature and pressure is compressed to higher pressures and chilled to lower temperatures. Specially designed ships, which have a containment system made of stacked horizontal or vertical pipes, transport the cold compressed gas. The
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technology can be divided into three parts namely, compression, refrigeration and transportation. Transportation includes the loading, the voyage using the CNG carriers and unloading CNG Cargo Containment System
2.2.5 CNG vs. LNG

In comparing CNG with LNG the same transporting ship real-volumetric capacity is used. However, in making the comparison it is worth remembering the disparity in the actual standard volume of the gas transported. For the same ship volume, LNG transports 2.1 Bcf of natural gas compared to a maximum volume of 1.2 Bcf transported as CNG. Keeping aside the difference in standard volumes, a proper comparison between the two technologies warrants a review of the requirements and the respective costs involved for both. For any LNG project to be economically viable a throughput of 0.5 to 1 Bcf/d of natural gas is required. Typically a LNG plant of 3 MMtpa needs a gas at rate of 400-450 MMscf/d5. This translates into gas reserves of 5 to 8 Tcf for a project life of 20 years, depending on the amount of condensates in the gas5. CNG projects, on the other hand, do not require such amount of reserves for the same throughput12. Fields with modest reserves and ga s rates can support CNG projects10 For LNG projects, the liquefaction plant is the most capital intensive. They make for almost 50% of the total investment for a LNG project13. Taking an industry estimate of production cost of $200/ton of LNG per annum, a project handling 500 MMscf/d (3.8 million tonnes of LNG per annum) requires an investment of 750 million. A CNG plant with loading facilities including compressors, pipelines and buoys costs $30 to 40 million8 The lower investment along with simplicity of the operations helps, in effect, in faster
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planning and commissioning of a CNG project. For CNG the shipping of the compressed gas is the most capital intensive. The ships cost approximately $230 million8 while for LNG the ships cost approximately $160 million15. Offloading of the LNG requires special facilities namely a regasification terminal. Regasification facilities cost $500-550 million depending upon terminal capacity13. CNG offloading facilities consisting of separators , scrubbers and heaters cost from $16 to 20 million8. Overall for CNG the total investment can range from $1-2 billion mainly depending upon the number of ships required. For LNG the investment can range from $1.5 to 2.5 billion depending on the market needs and number of ships required.
From Figures 2 and 3, one of the main attractions of CNG is that the bulk of the investment is in movable assets, while for LNG a very large of the investment is in fixed assets. The investment breakdown lowers the CNG investment risks, by providing a way to recover most of the investment and allow its deployment in other projects or applications. The next step is to estimate and compare the unit 39
price of gas delivered as CNG or LNG. For LNG the typical chain value per MMBTU of gas is15: Exploration and Production: $0.5- 1.0/MMBTU, Liquefaction: $0.8-1.2/MMBTU, Regasification and Storage: $0.3-0.5/MMBTU. Shipping of LNG is a function of distance of transport and the discount factors. Assuming the ships for transporting LNG are newly built the unit cost of shipping range from $0.4-1.5/MMBTU for distances from 500 to 5000 miles16. Thus, the total cost of producing and transporting LNG can range from $2 to $4.2 per MMBTU for the distances considered. For CNG, keeping the same unit cost for exploration and production, the chain value per MMBTU is: Exploration and Production: $0.5- 1.0/MMBTU, Processing and Transportation: $0.883.82/MMBTU for distances from 500 miles to 5000 miles. This translates into a unit cost of $1.38 to $4.82 per MMBTU. Taking a gas price of $0.75/MMBTU for both CNG and LNG and liquefaction cost of $1.0/MMBTU with regasification cost of $0.4/MMBTU, the unit price of LNG delivered is shown in Table 5. Transport Distance cost17 Unit cost miles $/MMBTU $/MMBTU 500 0.4 2.55 1000 0.5 2.65 1500 0.6 2.75 2000 0.7 2.85 2500 0.8 2.95 3500 1.1 3.25 5000 1.5 3.65 Table 5- Estimated unit cost of transporting the
2.2.6 Advantages of CNG over LNG: Requirement of lower throughput of gas for a project Involvement of lower capital Ease of deployment faster implementation of a project Ability to access stranded reserves and monetize them Majority of the investment is in the shipping, making the assets movable and reducing the risk involved
2.2.7 Disadvantages:Inability to transport large volumes of gas such LNG Disparity in the volume transport hinders commercial possibility of CNG
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2.3 Transportation By LNG Carriers:LNG carriers have been used to transport liquified natural gas overseas on a commercial basis since the late 1960s. Nowadays, a fleet of about 130 vessels transports 5% of the world annual gas consumption from producer to consumer. Over the years, there have been many improvements in the designs, but the main propulsion system is still the same. In all other sectors of commercial shipping, the steam turbine has been replaced by much more efficient diesels, but LNG carriers stick with steam turbines. The main reason is for this is the steam turbine propulsion system's unique capability to running on two cheap fuels simultaneously: Heavy Fuel Oil and Boil-off Gas. This feature, combined with a very high reliability, ensured the survival of the steam turbine in spite of its very low thermal efficiency until now. In 2002, Chantiers de l'Atlantique in France recieved the first order from Gaz de France for a 74,000 cubic meter diesel-electric driven LNG carrier. Diesel manufacturer Wrtsil in Finland will deliver the dual-fuel diesel gensets. The choise to select diesels instead of the conventional steam turbine indicated that there are owners and/or charterers in the LNG shipping community who are willing to try new technology, which increases thermal efficiency of the propulsion plant. A few LNG carrier operators have indicated they are interested in a more fuel efficient vessel, but charterers so far have been unwilling to consider engaging anything other than steam turbine driven LNG carriers. Due to the small size of the LNC carrier ordered at Chantiers de l'Atlantique, its power requirements are too low to lend itself for gas turbine drive. However, larger vessels, such as "K Freezia", with propulsion power requirements between 24 and 30 MW, are ideally suited for the use of aero-derivative gas turbines. It is these vessel that will be used in this review of alternative propulsion plants for LNG carriers.
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2.3.1 Conventional LNG Carrier

Name / Owner Builder / Delivery Dimensions Cargo capacity (100%) Speed Fuel consumption Propulsion machinery SK Summit / SK Shipping Co., Korea Daewoo HI, Korea / 1999 277 x 43.4 x 11.3 m (L x B x D) 138,000 cubic meter 20.3 kn 2,400 kg/h HFO + 3,950 kg/h BOG 1 Kawasaki UA-400 steam turbine, 29,830 kW
SK Summit represents the current standard in LNG carriers, 138,000 cubic meter cargo capacity and a cruising speed of around 19 knots. As of November 2002, there are approximately 60 vessels rather similar to SK Summit on order, with about 25 options. SK Summit is therefore a great example to be used as a benchmark when determining the relative merits of alternative LNG carriers propulsion systems. Prices for these vessels hover between USD. 165M and 170M. Total project cost per vessel can reach USD. 200M as a result of financing, delivery, project management, insurances, bank guarantees, etc.
2.3.2 The Basic Ship Structure:-
All LNG ships are double hulled and rely on insulation to keep LNG liquid at 260F (-162.2C). The cargo is carried at atmospheric pressure in specially insulated tanks, referred to as the cargo containment system, inside the inner hull.
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The tanks can be either of the Moss spherical type, or the prismatic, membrane type which conforms to the shape of the ship's hull. Or again, in a development, they could be of a new pyramid type (see illustration) from Conoco Phillips, which has just received Approval in Principle from ABS. The Moss type is the design emblematic of the LNG ship in that the tops of the spheres protrude above the hull making the ships instantly recognizable. Pioneered by Norway's Moss Rosenberg in the 1970's, the design is now owned by Moss Maritime a.s., Lysaker, Norway, a unit of Italy's ENI SAIPEM. There are three types of membrane containment systems, the Gaz Transport and Technigaz systems and a self-supporting prismatic membrane design from IHI, Japan. Gaz Transport and Technigaz are now one company, whose latest containment system, CS1, incorporates features from the existing Gaztransport No 96 and Technigaz Mk III systems. CS1 uses reinforced polyurethane foam insulation and two membranes, the first one 0.7 mm thick made of Invar (low thermal contraction coefficient metal and high nickel content), the second made of a composite aluminum-glass fiber called triplex. The system has been rationalized to make assembly easier and is prefabricated allowing quick assembly on board.
2.3.2.2 The Market Where Time Stood Still :To marine industry veterans, today's LNG boom is deja vu all over again. There was supposed to be this sort of LNG boom some 30 years ago. But in 1979, things soured when pricing disputes between U.S. buyers and Sonatrach of Algeria eventually led to the termination of contracts, the laying up of six LNG ships (three of which were later scrapped) and the mothballing of two out of four LNG terminals. There was still growing LNG demand in other areas, but international LNG ship construction slowed until it got a further impetus in the 1990's. What's different this time around is that the newbuilding market is dominated by South Korea, with China already entering the market. And the technology is advancing. For the first time, some ships are being specified with diesel, rather than steam turbine, propulsion, there are improvements in insulation of cargo containment systems, established containment systems are being twitched and new containment systems are being offered.
2.3.2.3 Taller Spheres:When is a sphere not a sphere? When it's a vertically stretched sphere. Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha, Ltd. ("K" Line), in partnership with Osaka Gas International Transport Inc. ) and Nippon Yusen Kaisha (NYK), has concluded a contract for a new 153,000 m3 LNG carrier with Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation.
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The ship will be mainly used to carry LNG for Osaka Gas from the Qalhat LNG Project in Oman from 2009. It will have four spherical LNG tanks three of which are being given a 2 m vertical stretch. This advantage enables tank capacity to be increased by about 5.5 percent but within almost the same ship dimensions and with the same fuel oil consumption.
2.3.2.4 The Shape Of Things To Come:A new entrant in the containment system market is Ocean LNG, Inc., Houston. It has developed a "more construction friendly LNG carrier" that can be built in "non-traditional LNG shipyards." ABS has issued Approval In Principle (AIP) to Ocean LNG's tank containment system and carrier design. The tank design is cylindrical with spherical dished ends. The 180,000 m3 version of Ocean LNG's ship design features five of these large 36 m diameter and 40 m high cylinder tanks each holding a volume of 36,000 m3 of LNG. Compared to the spherical containment system, the Ocean system is expected to increase cargo capacity within the same main hull dimensions by an estimated 25 percent, while still providing full access for inspections of both the insulation and tank structure. A key aspect of transporting LNG is the ability of the containment system to withstand dynamic sloshing loads of the LNG cargo when a tank is partially filled. Membrane systems are particularly sensitive to sloshing loads. The Ocean LNG tank design is fashioned according to IMO Type B independent tank design and based on the "leak before failure" principle. The tanks are designed to minimize filling restrictions due to sloshing effects. A detailed sloshing analysis of the tank and pump tower designs was recently completed by ABS.
2.3.2.5 To Boil Off ... Or Not?

Since LNG tankers rely on insulation rather than refrigeration to keep their cargo refrigerated, a small percentage will "boil off." Traditionally, LNG tankers have utilized this boil off as fuel in steam turbine based propulsion plant. That's changing. One way or another, the diesel is coming on board. One approach is to reliquefy the boil off gas, so that it remains as valuable cargo. Shipboard reliquefaction technology has matured considerably in recent years, making use of experience from land-based and LPG carrier installations. Among
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others Hamworthy KSE's patented Moss RS closed nitrogen cycle system for reliquefying boil-off gas offers a solution for pumping LNG back to the cargo tanks and hence the opportunity to deliver more cargo to the buyers. MAN B&W Diesel has produced a paper that thoroughly examines operating costs and additional income from the transport and sale of LNG. The paper, "LNG Carrier Propulsion by ME Engines and Reliquefaction," analyzes fuel oil, lube oil and maintenance costs for both propulsion and electrical power generation under various operating conditions on a comparison basis for a diesel-based solution against a steam plant. The evaluation shows that substantial economic benefits can be gained from diesel propulsion in conjunction with gas reliquefaction over the steam turbine-powered option, simply because of the big difference in thermal efficiencies while the first cost of the various propulsion systems is virtually the same. Overseas Shipholding Group (OSG) has ordered four 216,000 m3 LNG ships from Hyundai and Samsung. Each vessel utilizes two MAN B&W ME engines for main propulsion. Each yard will deliver two vessels for the Rasgas II project for shipping Qatari gas to the U.K. Main propulsion will be by two 6S70ME-C engines in each vessel. The engines for the Hyundai vessels will be built by Hyundai Heavy Industries, and for the Samsung vessels by HSD. The engines will be heavy fuel burning, and the boil off gas will be returned to the tanks via onboard reliquefaction plants. Apart from the reliquefaction solution, another means of utilizing the diesel is by using the boil off gas as fuel. MAN B&W's ME-GI engine is a gas injection, dual fuel low speed diesel engine, which can burn any ratio of fuel and gas desired. Wrtsil, meanwhile, has had considerable success with its DF dual-fuel engines. The first dual fuel electric LNG carrier, the 75,000 m3 Gaz de France Energy, was recently completed by Chantiers de l'Atlantique of France and is in service with Gaz de France. Furthermore, Wrtsil has now made a breakthrough into the Korean market with an order from Hyundai Heavy Industries Co. Ltd. to supply four sets of Wartsila 50DF dual-fuel engines to power a series of 155,000 m3 dual-fuel-electric LNG carriers, with an option on four more sets. The ships were ordered by BP Shipping of the U.K. and each ship will be equipped with two 12-cylinder and two nine-cylinder Wrtsil 50DF dual-fuel engines with an aggregate power of 39.9 MW, as prime movers in a dualfuel/electric machinery arrangement. ML
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CHAPTER 3
TRADITIONAL STEAM PROPULSION:After having been predominantly flared off or re-injected for decades, natural gas is playing an increasingly important role in global energy consumption today. Clean combustion properties and abundant reserves are the main benefactors for this evolution from unsolicited by-product of oil production to preferred energy source. With natural gas reserves often located far away from energy consumers and pipelines expensive or impractical to build, seaborne transportation of natural gas is on the rise as well. The most economic and common way to transport natural gas by sea is in liquefied form. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is today transported by a fleet of some two-hundred dedicated LNG carriers. With seaborne transportation of LNG expected to double within this decade, a vast expansion of the LNG carrier fleet is imminent. At the same time, increasing cargo volumes offer the possibility to apply economies of scale, and ships are about to significantly grow in size. These circumstances create the need to verify the technical solutions that have been applied in LNG carriers so far. The LNG trade has traditionally been based on long-term shipping contracts and dedicated fleets of ships sailing on fixed routes and schedules between the worlds rather limited number of LNG terminals. The LNG supply chain does not have much buffer capacity and it is very important that the cargo is delivered on time. For the past forty years, steam turbine installations have dominated onboard LNG carriers. The ease with which steam turbine installations can burn boil-off gas and their apparent reliability have kept them in the controlling position that has been taken over by diesel engine installations a long time ago in all other segments of the shipping industry. Steam turbine installations are however not very efficient. This has a negative impact on the operating economy and exhaust gas emissions of the ship. Exactly these issues play an increasingly important role in LNG shipping these days. Encouraged by the latest developments in its gas engine technology, Engine builders started looking for a more economic and environmentally friendly way to power LNG carriers. Machinery alternatives with two- and four-stroke diesel, high pressure gas-diesel and low-pressure dual-fuel engines, in mechanical and electric propulsion arrangements, with and without boil-off reliquefaction, were studied. Dual-fuelelectric installations were found to be the most attractive alternative to steam turbine installations. 3.1 Basic Characteristics:Steam turbine propulsion dominates todays global LNG carrier fleet. The original reasons for this have been the availability of high power output and the possibility of using low-grade fuels as well as cargo boil-off gas. Maintenance of the turbines is relatively low-cost and infrequent and the systems are considered
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proven and reliable. Boil-off gas is a key issue. It must be disposed of in some way and for many years of LNG carrier construction the steam boiler was the simplest solution. This feature has long been an obstacle to other propulsion systems entering the LNG carrier market and made steam turbine the standard choice for LNG carriers. The available quantity of boil-off gas depends on the ship design and its operating conditions. Today, a natural boil-off rate of 0.15 % per day is typically considered as a design point. However, this is a nominal value and actual values as low as 0.10 % have been reported. During ballast voyages the amount of available boil-off gas can be 10-50 % of the amount prevailing during laden voyages depending on how many tanks will contain a small quantity of LNG for tank cooling. Whatever propulsion plant is chosen, there has to be some way of handling this boil-off gas either by utilising it as fuel, or reliquefying it. The composition of the boil-off and thus its energy value also varies during the voyage and is an important consideration for alternative power plants. As nitrogen has a lower boiling point than methane, the nitrogen content of the boil-off gas is high at the beginning of the laden voyage and decreases during the voyage. In ballast, boil-off gas is mainly generated from the tank cooling spray; the heavier hydrocarbons evaporate, thereby giving the boil-off a higher energy content. The same result applies to forced boil-off gas. Safety is of utmost importance in gas shipping, and LNG carriers have an excellent safety record. The reliability of steam turbine propulsion has helped to achieve this together with strict terminal regulations and procedures, and robust ship designs. For example, propulsion power has to be available at all times whilst in port
3.2. Market Requirments:An attractive alternative should be outperforming the steam turbine installation with respect to its apparent disadvantages, while at the same time at least matching it with respect to its advantages. It is therefore important to study these advantages and disadvantages. The main reason to remain faithful to the steam turbine installation in LNG carriers is the ease with which they can burn boil-off gas. Boil-off gas is an unavoidable by-product of the seaborne LNG transportation concept. A small amount of cargo, approximately 0.13% per day in laden condition, is left to evaporate in order to control temperature and pressure in the ships cargo tanks. Both quantity and quality of the boil-off gas are subject to variation.
3.2.1 Operating Economy

Although steam turbine installations can utilize boil-off gas very easily, they do not use it very efficiently. Losses in the boilers, steam turbine, high-speed reduction gear and shafting bring the efficiency of the propulsion machinery to a level below 29% at full load. The efficiency of the electric power generation machinery is below 25% at full load. Part-load efficiencies of both the propulsion and electric power generation machinery are even lower. Such low machinery efficiencies lead to a substantial amount of HFO being
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required for complementing the available boil-off gas. In laden conditions, some 50% of the ships energy requirement is covered with HFO. In ballast condition, this share grows to 80%. Also for LNG carriers, like for any other kind of ship, fuel costs are one of the most important components of the ships operating costs.
3.2.2 Environmental-Friendliness:The low efficiency and the need to use large amounts of HFO have a negative impact on the ships CO2 and Sox emissions. CO2 emissions are already the focus of attention these days, and can be expected to get even more attention in the near future.
3.2.3 Safety:Gas tankers attract lots of attention from safety regulators worldwide. The safety of crew, ship and environment is of utmost importance. Onboard LNG carriers, steam turbine installations have a very decent safety record. No major calamities have been reported.
3.2.4 Reliability:Except for some well-documented problems with high speed reduction gears, steam turbine installations have proven reliable in operation.
3.2.5 Redundancy:In LNG shipping, it is common practice to tie up small fleets of ships on long-term charters on fixed routes with fixed sailing schedules. As the buffer capacity of such a supply chain is limited and punctual cargo operations are important, these kinds of trades require ships with amply redundant machinery. Although steam turbine installations have proven reliable, they do not have too much redundancy incorporated.
3.2.6 Maintanability:Due to the nature of the LNG trade, it is also important that maintenance of the machinery installation does not interfere with the sailing schedule of the ship or influence its performance. Steam turbine installations require a modest amount of well-schedulable maintenance. The timing can easily be made to coincide with the wet- and dry-docking intervals of the ship. 3.2.7 Crewability:As all other segments of the shipping industry have made the switch to diesel engine power during the last three decades, the pool of experienced and skilled
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steam engineers is rapidly shrinking. This poses a crewing challenge which can even reflect in manning costs.
3.2.8 Others:Ships with steam turbine installations have rather poor manoeuvring characteristics. When considering transits in light ice conditions and cargo operations offshore, good manoeuvring characteristics become increasingly important.
3.3 Winds of change:Short-term contracts and even spot cargoes are becoming more common today owing to the increasing LNG demand and supply. Some LNG carriers have even been ordered without any shipment contract or route, which was previously unheard of in the LNG business. Thus ship operators are bound to look for newbuildings with more operational flexibility and efficiency to adapt to varying contractual situations. This primarily calls for a flexible and efficient propulsion plant able to accommodate different ship speeds and alternative operating profiles. The main drawback of the traditional steam turbine plant is its inefficiency, and hence high fuel consumption. The lack of alternative usage for the boil-off gas has led to thinking that the boil-off gas is free. Alternative methods of utilizing boil-off gas have forced changes in this thinking. Furthermore the natural boil-off quantity is decreasing in modern LNG carriers owing to advances in tank insulation technology and design. As a result, the natural boil-off is far from sufficient to fuel the propulsion power needed for the relatively high ship operating speeds. Therefore forced boil-off gas or heavy fuel oil is needed to top up the fuel demand of the boilers, both of which increase operating costs. On a laden voyage typically around 50 % of the energy requirement comes from heavy fuel, and up to 80 % during ballast voyage. Environmental aspects also need to be considered. The high fuel consumption of a steam turbine plant leads directly to high CO2 emissions which will become an increasing liability in the future. Although NOX emissions of traditional LNG carriers are very low owing to the combustion characteristics of boilers, their SOX emissions are considerable because of the heavy fuel used to top up the energy requirement. Among the other arguments often heard against steam plant are an increasing lack of competent steam engineers, poor manoeuvring characteristics, and limited propulsion redundancy.
3.4 Alternative Propulsion Concept:Alternative machinery installations for LNG carriers could potentially be built around diesel engines, gasdiesel engine, dual-fuel engines and gas turbines. An attractive machinery alternative has to at least match the
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performance of the steam turbine installation with respect to the following aspects: Reliability Safety Additionally, an attractive alternative has to outperform the steam turbine installation with respect to the following aspects: Efficiency Environment Redundancy In relation to the boil-off gas, a choice has to be made between: Using boil-off gas as fuel Returning boil-off gas to the cargo tanks After Reliquefaction The machinery alternatives have sorted by the technology applied for basic power generation.
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CHAPTER 4
SLOW SPEED DIESEL ENGINE

4.1 Slow Speed Diesel with BOG reliquefaction:Since the nineteen-seventies, diesel engine installations have become dominant in all shipping segments, except LNG shipping. Experience gained from thousands of diesel engine installations in service has resulted in the development of highly-efficient, reliable and safe diesel engines. The latest developments, like the application of common rail fuel injection on both four- and two-stroke diesel engines, are taking diesel engine technology yet one step further. As diesel engines can only burn liquid fuels like marine diesel oil MDO) and HFO, the boil-off gas on LNG carriers has to be reliquefied in an onboard Reliquefaction plant and fed back into the ships cargo tanks. These reliquefaction plants require a substantial amount of electric power to operate and are costly, heavy and have only been applied in the marine environment on a very limited scale. The most simple and straightforward diesel engine installation for a ship the size of a conventional LNG carrier or larger would be a single two-stroke engine in direct-drive to a single fixed-pitch propeller. As the LNG trade sets high standards with respect to maintainability and redundancy, the most simple and straightforward diesel engine installation onboard an LNG carrier will likely feature twin two-stroke engines, each in direct drive to a fixedpitch propeller. In order to keep the complexity low and the operational flexibility high, electric power will likely be generated by a group of four-stroke diesel generating sets. Devices for locking or disconnecting the propeller shafts will be necessary to enable maintenance activities on one engine while sailing. Having one engine out of operation for maintenance will however still have a substantial impact on the ships service speed. This impact can be reduced by selecting controllable-pitch propellers, or by using the tuning possibilities of electronicallycontrolled, two-stroke engines. The exhaust emissions of two-stroke engine installations are reasonable, but certainly not excellent. Without additional equipment like SCR units or direct water injection, NOx emissions are substantial. As an inevitable consequence of using HFO as a fuel, SOx emissions are high too. More propulsion redundancy and operational flexibility can be offered by applying multiple four-stroke diesel engines driving controllable-pitch propellers through reduction gears. A further enhancement can be realized by applying electric propulsion. The application of electric propulsion will at the same time result in a higher part-load efficiency. Major advantages of the diesel system are the high overall fuel efficiency which is about 60% higher than for steam plants, the reduced engine room space required and considerable lower initial costs. Diesel propulsion is perceived as offering less redundancy than existing steam systems, which we do not completely accept. In any case, redundancy could be achieved by installing a combined power take off, power take in (PTO / PTI). In the case of a main engine 51
failure, the e-motor on the shaft line would be driven by the diesel gensets which would allow the ship to sail at a safe manoeuvring speed. This is a proven design which has been installed on several chemical tankers. Another consideration with diesel propulsion is that amount of LNG delivered is higher because the BOG is being reliquefied. One negative point is the potential increase in NOx, and SOx emissions as the engines burn HFO, however the amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere could be reduced. For our analysis, the system shown in fig. 1 was adopted. The reliquefaction plant is a closed Brayton cycle. The BOG is removed from the tanks, compressed and cooled and condensed to LNG in a cryogenic heat exchanger. Non-condensibles, mainly nitrogen, are removed in a separator and exited to the vent. The LNG is returned to the tanks. The cryogenic temperature in the heat exchanger is produced by means of a nitrogen compression expansion cycle. The plant requires about 3.5 MW electrical power.
Figure 1: Diagram of Diesel engine with Reliquefaction
4.2 GAS-DIESEL ENGINE ALTERNATIVES:Gas-diesel engines act according to the Diesel principle and can virtually burn any possible mixture of gas and liquid fuel, with only a few restrictions to the quality of the gas. As the mixture of gas and liquid fuel is injected into the combustion chamber during air compression (Fig. 2), the required injection pressure is high. For four-stroke gas diesel
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engines, a gas pressure of around 350 bar is required, while for two-stroke gasdiesel engines some 250 bar is deemed sufficient.
Except for the reliquefaction plant, LNG machinery installations based on gasdiesel engines look fairly similar to concepts based on conventional diesel engines. As boil-off gas is generated at atmospheric pressure, large gas compressors are required to boost the gas pressure to the appropriate level. These compressors require a substantial amount of electric power to operate and are costly and heavy. Additionally, the presence of high-pressure gas in the engine room is a major safety concern, especially on LNG carriers. Emissions of gas-diesel engine installations are generally lower than those of steam turbine and diesel engine installations as a result of higher efficiency and cleaner fuel, respectively.
M/V Excalibur LNG Carriers
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LNG carriers represent the last stand for the in all other markets practically extinct marine steam turbines. With efficiencies of only about 30%, versus the diesel engines more than 50%, and in combined systems even higher, diesel engines are the propulsion system of choice in the marine industry.
Diesel Driven with reliquefaction plant This reason for the dominance of the diesel engines is clearly demonstrated in Fig showing the thermal efficiency of the various prime movers.
Typical thermal efficiencies of prime movers As shown, steam turbine propulsion plants generally have a lower efficiency and therefore need far more input energy than modern, fuel efficient diesel engines. With efficiency and CO2 emission being largely inversely
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proportional, MAN B&W is proposing alternative propulsion concepts based on low speed diesel engines with electronic control for modern LNG tankers. Two different concepts are offered: ME HFO burning engines ME-GI dual fuel burning engines.
Building Blocks for an LNG Carrier HFO burning fuel efficient Low Speed two-stroke diesel engines in single or twin propeller configuration, in combination with reliquefaction of the Boil Off Gas (BOG), offer economic benefits for those trades where loss, i.e. consumption of cargo, is not accepted and the supply of the full amount of cargo is honoured. Where this is not the case, and gas fuel is preferred, the ME-GI dual fuel engine is the proper answer. Recent technical development has made it possible for MAN B&W to offer the option of dual fuel operation on ME-powered LNG carriers. The system focuses around a high pressure reciprocating compressor supplying the engine with the main gas injection, while ignition is ensured by pilot oil injection. Ten years of operational experience have been logged with this concept. However, LNG carriers are expensive ships, and the contractual supply of cargo is usually tied by strict charterparty conditions. Therefore, the market has been hesitant to look at and accept other than the traditional steam propulsion system.
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Now this has changed. With the market launch of electronically controlled low speed diesels and reliable independent reliquefaction technology, all the traditional reasons not to leave the steam turbine have become invalid. It must also be realised that manning of steam driven commercial vessels will be increasingly difficult because of the phasing out of marine steam turbines. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate by comparison that the LNG transport industry can benefit greatly in terms of US$ savings by changing to electronically controlled low speed diesels while, at the same time, contributing to a better environment by significantly reducing CO2 emission. The OVERALL conclusion is that more than US$ 3 million is lost every year through the funnel of every steam driven LNG carrier. MAN B&W offers a full programme of marine diesel engines for every conceivable application. The low speed engine programme is developed in Denmark and manufactured by a family of licensees at major shipbuilding centres of the world. Single unit powers range from 2,000 hp to well over 100,000 hp, all for direct coupled installation at propeller speeds from 250 rpm down to 60 rpm for the largest propellers. The power requirement for an LNG carrier calls for some 40,000 hp, typically two off 60 or 70 cm bore units. MAN B&W low speed engines hold a worldwide market share of about 65 % in their segment.. Another recent demonstration took place with the delivery of a 6S70ME-C engine at HSD in Korea in July 2003.
4.2.1 ME-GI -- The Dual Fuel Engine:MAN B&W Diesel A/S launches the ME-GI engine. This range of engines is designed for the highly specialised LNG carrier market. The design builds on experience gained from the earlier MC-GI engines combined with the developments in the latest electronically controlled ME engines.
The ME-GI Engine
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The ME-GI Engines After careful consideration of the various alternatives for LNG carrier propulsion, the conclusion from MAN B&W is that a two-stroke engine solution is the best system for powering LNG carriers.
The ME-GI Engine Hydraulic Oil Loop The combination of low installation and running costs for this highly specialized type of vessel makes the adoption of the dual fuel ME-GI engine from MAN B&W very attractive for any ship owner and operator who needs to keep their costs to
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a minimum. An additional Reliquefaction plant allows sale of more gas when the gas price is higher than the fuel oil price. Traditionally, LNG carriers have been driven by steam turbines that are fed from boilers fired by the boil off gas, supported by heavy fuel oil. Responding to a market demand for more efficient engines, while retaining the option to burn the boil off gas, MAN B&W is now reintroducing its high pressure gas injection low speed diesels now in electronically controlled execution. Designated ME-GI, this gas burning option is being offered in parallel to the heavy fuel-burning solution with gas reliquefaction.
. The combination of the ME-GI engine, installed with a reliquefaction plant, allows the owners and operators the choice to either use the boil off gas in the engine or to reliquefy the gas and use HFO instead. The choice being dependent on their relative prices and availability, as well as environmental considerations
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Out of all the options for the prime mover, the low speed twostroke diesel engine gives the best thermal efficiency for any conventional propulsion system. This is especially the case for LNG carriers, where the power requirement is around 30 to 40 MW. Thermal efficiencies of around 50% for diesel engines far exceed the 30% offered by steam turbines and any other combination alternatives.
General arrangement of double wall piping system for gas The ME-GI dual fuel enhanced engine control and monitoring systems enable the latest ME technical developments to be applied to the LNG carriers. The precise timing and combustion rate shaping gained through the use of the electronic control of injection and exhaust valves produce greater control at any load. In order to make it possible to use the Boil Off Gas from an LNG Carrier as fuel in low speed diesels as well, MAN B&W has readdressed this technology based on our ME engine concept. The benefits of the greater control given by the ME engine range further enhance the operational reasons for introducing this option. Some years ago, MAN B&W developed the MC range of engines for dual fuel. These were designated MC-GI (Gas Injection). The combustion cycle was initiated by the injection of pilot fuel oil, followed by the main gas injection. The technology was widely published as, for instance, in Ref. [2]. The fuel injection timing on these dual fuel engines was mechanically controlled, but in the electronically controlled version, like all ME engines, it can be user-defined and is subject to greater control and flexibility, thereby allowing the dual fuel concept to be further optimized. The efficiency of the ME-GI duel fuel engines is the same as an ordinary ME engine, due the diesel cycle. The system efficiency will be higher than that of other gas consuming propulsion system, incl. dual fuel diesel electric even considering the compressor power. Full redundancy as required by International
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Association of Classification Societies (IACS) can be met with one compressor, one reliquefaction unit or one oxidizer as also discussed later. The system configuration is shown in Fig. 5.
ME-GI engine and gas handling units The average lifetime of commercial vessels is 25 years, by which time the vessels are usually scrapped for reasons of economy. Diesel engines could operate for decades beyond, as all wear parts are replaceable. Long living diesels are seen mainly in power plants. The low speed diesel engine has a long lifetime which also makes it relevant for LNG carriers with a lifetime of up to 40 years. The latest series of electronically controlled engines, the ME series, are particularly suitable for the trade discussed, as the control system software can be updated routinely. Maintenance requirements for diesels are predictable, and parts supplies over the engine lifetime are guaranteed by the manufacturer and designer. Vibration levels are fully predictable and controllable, both for vessels with spherical tanks and membrane tank systems. Furthermore, the segregation of the gas cargo and heavy fuel for propulsion ensured with reliquefaction means that handling of gas in the engine room and surrounding areas is avoided. Based on the technology described in the foregoing, the machinery to replace the steam turbine and boilers in a typical 145,000 m3 LNG carrier is therefore 2 x approx. 20,000 hp low speed fuel burning ME or ME-GI type diesel engines. Typical propulsion power requirements for LNG carriers of different sizes are shown in Fig
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Typical Propulsion Power Requirements for LNG Carriers The bridge and engine room control system shall be able to handle operation with both one (emergency) and two engines. The bridge and engine room control system shall, in the case of operation on two engines, be able to handle both individual control and simultaneous control of the engines. Simultaneous control consists of equality in power distribution, order for reversing, start of engines and stop of engines. The control system shall, in case of failure on one of the engines, be able to ensure continuous operation with only one engine without jeopardizing manoeuvrability or safety of the ship or engines. In the case of FP propellers, it is presumed that, the shaft is declutched from the engines and the propeller wind- milling, alternatively that a shaft brake is applied. In the case of CP propellers, it is presumed that the propeller is at zero pitch and the shaft brake is active. If engine overhaul is to take place during sailing, declutching is necessary.
Propeller curves in load diagram with one vs. two propellers working
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In the case of a FP propeller the working engine will have to accept a heavy propeller, i. e. higher torque, as shown in Fig, which basically calls for a changed engine timing. With the ME engine concept, this can be done by push button only, activating single engine running mode. This can be pre-programmed into the software just as the so-called economy mode and low Ox mode. Hence, the operating engine of will be readily optimised for the purpose, and full mobility of the vessel ensured. As per calculation, a speed of 75% of the design speed of the vessel can be obtained with a single engine in operation.
4.2.2 Economical Evaluation:The operating costs and the additional income from sale of the reliquefied LNG for a 150,000 m3 LNG carrier is analysed in the following. The analysis includes fuel oil, lubricating oil and maintenance costs for both propulsion and electricity production under various operating conditions. The analysis is based on state-ofthe-art insulation of tanks, and thus BOG rate, and a traditional service speed of the vessel. An evaluation of the operating costs and the additional income from selling reliquefied LNG shows that substantial economic benefits can be obtained. The actual outcome of the evaluation will depend on the project in question. i.e. voyage profile, service speed, size of the vessel economic factors, price of HFO and LNG, as well as of the Boil-Off rate. In any case, diesel engine propulsion offers significant economic savings for the operator. The operating costs are indicated in the tables in the Appendix and based on the Basic Data and a typical voyage profile as shown in Fig.
Operating costs for LNG carriers
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Table 4 of this Appendix shows the final summary of the operating costs and in that the potential for additional income is above 3.5 million US$/year. In Fig. the result of the summary in Table 4 is visualized for various sizes of LNG carriers. The additional sale of reliquefied BOG brings the large saving. The savings depends, of course, on the sale price of LNG compared to HFO. Fig. 30 shows the advantage by reliquefaction compared to steam propulsion for a 150,000 m3 LNG carriers as a function of the LNG price compared to the HFO price per energy unit. For guidance, historically price levels of LNG and HFO on some LNG markets are shown.
4.2.3 Investment cost:Shipyards that today build LNG carriers have much more experience of installing diesel engines than steam turbines and boilers. The installation of twostroke diesel engines are therefore already known to the yards and the cost can be kept low. The direct-coupled diesel solution incl. reliquelation plant requires lower investment cost than the steam plant, as far as equipment is concerned. However, the twin-screw solution proposed does represent added cost on the hull side at some shipyards. This could be up to US$ 3-4 million, but the total cost is still comparable to that of the steam plant.
4.2.4 Exhaust Emissions:The expected annual exhaust emissions for the solutions is shown in Fig. 31. The CO2 emission is obviously largest for the steam plant due to its low efficiency. The SOx from the fuel sulphur is about the same, as the same amount of fuel is used. This can be reduced by using fuel with low sulphur content for both steam turbine and diesel engine propulsion.
Emissions for the solutions compared
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The proposed diesel solution complies with the IMO limits for NOx emissions and is therefore without any NOx abatement. However, the NOx can, if needed, be reduced to any level by Selective Catalytic Reduction.
4.2.5 Whats Special In It-A Comparative Analysis :As mentioned in the introduction, the purpose of making electronic engines is focused around the virtues related to ensuring fuel injection and rate, as well as exhaust valve timing exactly when and as desired. With respect to the exhaust valve movement, this means changing the cam length, as illustrated in Fig. by simply changing the point in time of activating the ELVA valve.
Fig. 24: Exhaust Valve Timing This can be used to control the energy to the turbocharger, both during steady and transient load conditions. .
Fig. 25: Exhaust Valve Closing Time
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Smoke-free acceleration is a natural benefit apart from SFOC optimization at any load. Fig. 25 gives an illustration of how already a different cam length was implemented on the 7S50ME-C engine in Frederikshavn for 100% load vs. 75% load Thanks to the multitude of possibilities with the ELFI, the proportional valve controlling the servo oil pressure to the fuel oil pressure booster, not only the fuel oil cam length, but also the cam inclination and angle and even the number of activations per stroke can be varied for the fuel oil injection. Fig. 26 illustrates different profiles demonstrated during testing of the 7S50ME-C.
Fig. 26: Injection Profiles The double injection profile is specially tailored for a significant reduction of NOx emissions as referred to later (see Fig. 32). Fig. 27 shows the selected injection rate on that engine at 75% load, compared with what it would have been with a fixed cam.
Fig. 27: Injection at 75% load, ME-C versus MC-C The resulting heat release, see Fig. is the reason for selecting a more intensive injection.
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Fig. 28: Heat Release at 75% load, ME-C versus MC-C A better heat release mirrors a better fuel consumption, also because the pmax is higher, see Fig. Such data could of course also be realised on a
Fig. 29: Cylinder Pressures at 75% load, ME-C versus MC-C mechanical engine, but not while at the same time maintaining the ability to perform at 100% load. In the low end of the load scale, the possibility for controlling the timing and rate of injection gives the possibility to demonstrate stable running down to 10% of MCR-rpm, i.e. 13 rpm against a water brake only. This could be even more stable against a propeller eliminating the need for stopand-go operation through channels and canals and making ME engines particularly suitable for shuttle tankers and lightering vessels, as well as for vessels with greatly varying load profile. General performance curves for the MEC and MC-C engines are shown in Fig. 30. The lower part load fuel consumption is achieved by raising the pmax over the whole load range. 66
Fig. 30: Performance Curves, ME-C versus MC-C In order to avoid too high difference between pmax and pcomp, also this pressure is raised by timing control. As also illustrated, the lower SFOC comes at a price in that the NOx increases. For this reason, the first two modes to be incorporated in the control system of the ME engine, as standard, are the fuel economy mode and the low-NOx mode. Fig. 31 illustrates the coagency between SFOC, NOx, and pmax/Pcomp for the two modes.
Fig. 31: Performance Curves, Economy versus low-NOx It goes without saying that an ME-C engine will comply with IMOs NOx cap also in the fuel economy mode.
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The low-NOx mode is intended for areas where lower than IMO NOx limits do or will apply. The change from one mode to the other is a matter of seconds only and, of course, is done while running, as illustrated in Fig.
Fig. 32: 7S50ME-C 75% load
4.2.6 Reduced Fuel Consumption

x
Fuel injection characteristics can be optimised at a large number of load conditions whereas a conventional engine has to be optimised for the guaranteed load, typically at 90100 % MCR. Constant pmax in the upper load range can be achieved by a combination of fuel injection timing and variation of the compression ratio (the latter by varying the timing of closing the exhaust valve). Due to this, the maximum pressure can be kept constant over a wider load range without overloading the engine, leading to SFOC reductions at part-load. Monitoring of the cylinder pressures ensures that the load distribution among the cylinders and the individual cylinders firing pressure can be kept up to as new standard, maintaining the as new performance over the lifetime of the engine.
4.2.7 Operational Safety & Flexibility

The ME engines crash stop and reverse running performance are improved because the timing of exhaust valves and fuel injection is optimal for all engine operation scenarios. 9 Faster acceleration of the ME engine is possible because the scavenge air pressure can be increased faster than normal opening the exhaust valve earlier during acceleration.
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9 Dead slow running and slow steaming are improved significantly as the minimum rpm are 1012 % of the MCR level, and dead slow running is more regular because the combustion is improved thanks to the electronic control of the fuel injection. 9 The control system of the ME engine includes an on-line overload protection system, which ensures that the engine complies with the load-diagram and is not overloaded in the event that the propeller becomes too heavy running as a result of fouling of the hull and resistance from wind and waves.
4.2.8 Flexibilty Regarding Exhaust Gas Emission

The ME engine can be run in different modes, viz. The Limited exhaust gas emission mode and the Low fuel oil consumption mode.
x x
Smoke emission at low load is improved. The Alpha Lubricator, which is a computer controlled cylinder lubricator system with intermittent lubrication, enables a reduction in the lube oil dosage. Less weight: approximately 3 t/cyl. for a 600- mm-bore engine.
The ME engine range has proved to be very successful since its introduction. The first ME engine was put into service on the 37,500 dwt chemical tanker M/T Bow Cecil (Odfjell, Norway). This engine, a 6L60MC/ME, has performed as desired for more than 16,000 hours. The ME range of engines is available from the 4S50ME-C through to the worlds most powerful ME engine, the 14K108MEC.The advantages of the ME-C range of engines are quite comprehensive, as seen below:
4.2.9 Advantages : Lower SFOC and better performance parameters thanks to variable electronically controlled timing of fuel injection and exhaust valves at any load Appropriate fuel injection pressure and rate shaping at any load Improved emission characteristics, with lower NOx and smokeless operation Easy change of operating mode during operation Simplicity of mechanical system with well proven traditional fuel injection technology familiar to any crew
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Control system with more precise timing, giving better engine balance with equalized thermal load in and between cylinders System comprising performance, adequate monitoring and diagnostics of engine for longer time between overhauls Lower rpm possible for manoeuvring Better acceleration, astern and crash stop performance Integrated Alpha Cylinder Lubricators Up-gradable to software development over the lifetime of the engine
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CHAPTER 5
DUAL FUEL DIESEL-ELECTRIC PROPULSION

The dual fuel engine is basically a normal 4 stroke diesel which can utilize natural gas as fuel. The gas is injected into the air intake and a small amount of diesel is added in the combustion chamber to ignite the gas / air mixture. In addition to running on gas, dual-fuel engines can run on MDO. When running on MDO, the dual-fuel engine acts as a normal diesel engine.
In case the supply of gas is interrupted, the dual-fuel engine automatically transfers to diesel mode, without loss of engine power or speed. The transfer from diesel to gas mode is carried out fully-automatic on demand and is possible within one revolution of the engine. The system is extremely environment friendly. When using LNG as fuel there is very little NOx, no SOx and no particle emissions. The reduction of CO2 emissions totals approximately 100,000 mt per year compared to a standard steam-driven LNG carrier. The Dual fuel engines are four-stroke engines which can be run alternatively in gas mode or liquid-fuelled diesel mode. In gas mode it runs as a lean-burn engine according to the Otto cycle. Ignition is initiated by injecting a small amount of diesel oil (pilot fuel), giving a high-energy ignition source for the main fuel gas charge in the cylinder. The micro-pilot injection system uses less than 1 % of nominal fuel energy input. In liquid fuel mode the this engine works just like any diesel engine, utilising a traditional jerk pump fuel injection system. Transfers between the two operating modes take place without interruption in power supply. With a lean fuel mixture it is possible to achieve good engine characteristics regarding efficiency and emissions. However, at higher loads the useful operating window between knocking and misfiring is very narrow. Accordingly, electronic control of gas admission and pilot injection is employed in the DF engines to regulate the combustion process individually for each cylinder. Accurate control ensures that combustion stays within the operating window and has optimal performance for all cylinders under all conditions as the gas quality, ambient temperature etc. vary.
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LNG cargo boil-off is a very good fuel for the DF engines. The only considerable variation in the gas composition, however, is the nitrogen content such that the energy content of the boil-off gas is lower than that of pure methane. The nitrogen content in the LNG vapour can be as much as 30 % in volume especially at the beginning of the laden voyage. This is not a problem for DF engines as they can run on such a gas mixture at their nominal output without de-rating.
Electric propulsion system for LNG carriers
5.1 AZIPOD PROPULSION - Electric Marine Propulsion:Azipod is a podded propulsion system, azimuthing through 360C, cruising ahead of competition in the 5MW to 30MW class. It incorporates an electric motor mounted directly on an extremely short propeller shaft. The motor drives a fixed-pitch propeller. The motor is controlled by a frequency converter which produces full nominal torque, smooth and stepless, in either direction over the entire speed range, including standstill. The propeller rpm can be optimized according to the varying hydrodynamics of each project.
5.2 CRP AZIPOD PROPULSION - High-Efficiency Contra-Rotating Propulsion System

Contra-rotating propulsion (CRP) means there are two propellers on the same line rotating in different directions - an Azipod is installed in place of a normal rudder, aligned downstream of the main propeller. The secondary propeller utilizes the remaining energy from the rotating water leaving the forward propeller.
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Each Azipod propulsion system is individually designed and optimized to achieve maximum performance.
The system encompasses several unique advantages, resulting in the best hydrodynamic efficiency in the industry. Gains in efficiency are achieved by applying the CRP principle, dividing the load over two propellers and through utilization of the preferred single-skeg hull form. Enhancing propulsion efficiency up to 15%, the CRP Azipod propulsion system will have a big impact on vessel construction for ship types such as RoPax, ULCS and tankers.
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5.3 COMPACT AZIPOD PROPULSION - Marine Electric Thruster System:The Compact Azipod is a electric thruster solution for smaller vessels, is standardized and modular, with high performance and low operating costs. The system is produced in five sizes from 0.5MW to 4.2MW and is available in propulsion and azimuthing thruster versions.
System construction is straightforward, consisting of a Propulsor Module and a Steering Module, providing unlimited azimuthing angels. The Propulsor Module incorporates an ultra-efficient permanent magnet synchronous motor with a fixedpitch propeller mounted directly to the motor shaft. The compact motor is directly cooled by surrounding seawater, allowing for a simple mechanical construction and a slim pod with superb hydrodynamics.
5.4 First large size dual fuel electric carrier:Oslo, Norway ? December 12th, 2003 ? Chantiers de lAtlantique, ALSTOM Group, has awarded ABB Marine a contract to supply the electric propulsion system for a new 153.000 m3 LNG carrier, owned by Gaz de France. The vessel will be built in France by Chantiers de lAtlantique and delivered in 2005. This propulsion systems meet stringent safety, reliability, and cost efficiency requirements, as demanded by leading ship owners and gas charters.
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Increased worldwide utilization and transportation of LNG has initiated several studies to explore alternatives to conventional steam turbine propulsion. For LNG carriers, electrical propulsion provides the highest overall efficiency and benefits for ship builders and for operators of the ship. To the new Gaz de France LNG carrier, a complete propulsion drive system in a redundant electrical configuration is provided. The delivery will include medium speed propulsion motors of a total of 28 MW, medium-voltage frequency converters (ABB ACS 6000), and a propulsion control system. The frequency converters use the Direct Torque Control (DTC) technology, a genuine motor control method developed. The converter technology gives improved performance and controllability of the propulsion system compared to alternative methods, and a simpler electrical power system without harmonic filters.
Figure 2: Diagram of Diesel-Electric Propulsion The diagram of the system is shown in fig. 2. Four diesels provide electrical power for the main propulsion motors and the other electrical consumers. This gives a high flexibility between different operating modes. The total power installed is less than for any other propulsion alternative because of this flexibility. As the diesels are producing electricity, an in-line arrangement of shaft/gearbox/engine is not necessary. So the diesels can be arranged on a higher deck, thus reducing engine room space demand. The layout offers multiple redundancy, apart from the shafting and the gearbox. Even in the event that two diesels should fail, or one electric motor is out of use, the ship would be able to sail at about 75% of its design speed. An LNGC of about 145,000 m with
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diesel-electric propulsion will be able to take about 5000 m more cargo than a steam-driven ship with same overall dimensions. . The number and size of these sets of course largely depends on the ship size and speed, but also on the envisaged operating philosophy. An LNG carrier with a cargo capacity of some 150000 m3 will typically require one six- and three twelve cylinder engines. An LNG carrier with a cargo capacity of 200000 m3 will typically require two six- and four nine-cylinder engines, and a ship of 250000 m3 cargo capacity will do with two six- and four twelve-cylinder dual-fuel engines. The generated electric power is fed to an electric drive fairly similar to those used on contemporary cruise ships. Two high-speed electric propulsion motors drive a fixed-pitch propeller through a reduction gear. Twin low-speed electric motors mounted on the same shaft can be selected to drive the propeller without assistance of a gearbox alternatively. For the larger ships, twin screw arrangements can be selected without significantly increasing the complexity of the machinery installation.
5.5 Advantages:The main advantages of electric propulsion are: Reduced lifecycle cost by improving the operational economy with reduced fuel consumption and maintenance cost Increased payload through efficient modularization and flexible location of machinery components Safety and reliability with improved manoeuvrability, high redundancy and standardized proven technology Environmental benefits from lower fuel consumption and emissions resulting from constant speed engine operation with optimized loading and high efficiency Better comfort for crew and passengers due to reduced vibration and noise High performance due to maximum torque at zero speed Flexible and easy installation compared to diesel mechanical systems Hence the main arguments in its favour are high fuel efficiency, safety, and flexible and efficient use of the installed machinery. The selection of either single or twin screws has to be based on the operating profile and redundancy requirements specific for each project. The main disadvantages of this system compared to the alternatives are the slightly higher initial costs and the small efficiency loss in the power generation process
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5.6 Four generating sets:The number of engines and the power output of each unit are determined by the shaft power needed and also by the degree of redundancy requested. Generally speaking on a typical 138,000 m3 ship with the need for some 34 MW total engine output, the power plant would consist of four generating sets. The maximum continuous output of these engines are 950 kW/cylinder at 500 or 514 rev/min (50 or 60 Hz respectively) and their thermal efficiency is as high as 48 %. Four engines provide some redundancy if one of the engines is out of service, and also flexibility for the different operating modes such as manoeuvring, waiting off ports, loading and unloading. Additionally, they allow flexible preventive maintenance at sea and during port calls, which is not the case with the steam plant or other single-engine alternatives.
5.7 High total efficiency:Recent studies suggest that the most beneficial solution, both economically and environmentally, for topping up the energy available from boil-off gas is to use forced boil-off instead of diesel fuel oil. This solution, in combination with DFelectric propulsion, is economically very attractive in both installation and operating costs. Recent evaluations in the industry have calculated annual savings in total operating costs of between 2.2 and 2.8 million USD compared with a traditional steam turbine LNG carrier. As the dual-fuel engine is operated on low-pressure gas, below five bar at the engine inlet, the fuel gas compressor package is essentially similar (only two-stage instead of single-stage) to that already used in the current steam-powered fleet. The main difference is that the total efficiency of the DF-electric plant is well above 40 % compared to less than 30 % for the steam plant. The difference is even greater in part-load operation.
5.8 Outline of the DF-electric LNG carrier:The DF-electric LNG carrier concept is designed for a single-screw vessel with four cargo tanks and a capacity of about 138,000 m3. The hull has a transom stern, a single-skeg aft body and a bulbous bow. The propulsion machinery and accommodation spaces are arranged in the stern part. The cargo machinery room is arranged separate from the accommodation space on the upper deck. Two cargo tank system variants can be applied: Membrane and spherical types. Both variants have a length bp of 275 m, breadth of 43 m and 48 m respectively, and design draught of 11 m. The main machinery consists of four nine-cylinder in-line W50DF dual-fuel engines, each driving an alternator. Each main engine develops 8550 kW at 514 rev/min, giving a total output of 34.2 MW. The main generators feed the ships electrical network and,
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through a variable-speed drive system, the propulsion motors. A 500 kW emergency diesel generator set is also installed. The single, five-bladed fixed pitch propeller is driven by two 13.5 MW AC propulsion motors through couplings and a twin-input/single-output reduction gear. There are also two 1000 kW bow thrusters. To enhance the redundancy of the propulsion plant, the main engine rooms and casings are divided with a fire-resistant bulkhead. The main engine rooms are under diminished air pressure. A back-up arrangement of a thermal oxidiser is provided to dispose of boil-off gas during long periods of low-load operation. The service speed of the ship is about 19.5 knots at the design draught of 11.0 m and with 15 % sea margin, which corresponds to 27 MW shaft power. The power for accommodation and machinery ancillary consumers is about 1 MW.
5.8.1 Operating Economy:As dual-fuel engines have the ability to run on both gas and MDO, the choice of fuel is up to operator. Several independent studies have however confirmed that forcing additional boil-off gas to complement the natural boil-off gas is the way to profit most from the potential of the dual-fuel-electric solution. Firstly, forced boiloff gas is cheaper than alternative fuels. Secondly, it is lighter than alternative fuels. Fuel bunkers weight is thus reduced, and at a given displacement, the ship will be able to carry more cargo weight. Carrying more cargo volume is enabled by the fact that the dual-fuel-electric solution saves engine room space (Fig. 7). Even when using a small part of the cargo as fuel, a dual-fuel-electric LNG carrier will deliver more cargo to the unloading port in this way.
The efficiency of the propulsion machinery of a dualfuel- electric LNG carrier is approximately 41% and the efficiency of the electric power generation machinery is around 44%, compared to 29% and 25% respectively for a steam turbine installation. A two-stroke diesel engine installation will have a propulsion
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machinery efficiency of about 48% and the efficiency of the electric power generation machinery will be about 41%, but will consume a substantially higher amount of electric power due to the presence of the liquefaction plant. Adding the cheaper fuel of the dual-fuel-electric LNG carrier to the equation, this solution clearly excels in terms of operating costs (Fig. 8).
5.8.2 Environmental-Friendliness:When exclusively using natural and forced boil-off gas as fuel, the dual-fuel electric solution shows unrivalled emission values (Fig. 9). All other machinery alternatives suffer from the use of HFO, either used uniquely or in combination with natural boil-off gas.
5.8.3 Safety:A Safety Concept for dual-fuel-electric machinery onboard LNG carriers has been developed to make sure that the safety of the installation complies with class and at least matches the safety of steam turbine installations. The recent introduction of double-wall gas piping on the engine pipeline will further increase the safety of the solution. With several potential customers and class, safety
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studies including hazard identification, FMEA and hazardous operations studies, have been conducted to further validate the safety of the solution.
5.8.4 Reliability:The diesel engine has proven its reliability in various demanding marine applications, such as cruise ships. The use of gas as compared to HFO further enhances this inherited reliability.
5.8.5 Redundancy:Electric propulsion systems are in their essence highly redundant, as more or less all primary functions of the system are distributed over more than one component. The dual-fuel-electric installation features multiple generating sets, potentially distributed over multiple engine rooms, has twin transformers and converters, and features twin electric propulsion motors with double windings.
5.8.6 Maintainability:Case studies for various customers have shown that the required maintenance on dual-fuel-electric installations can easily be carried out without affecting the ships operational performance. Maintenance of dual-fuelelectric installations is more costly than of steam turbine installation, but does no harm to the ships operating economy.
5.8.7 Crewability:Dual-fuel-electric installations can be operated and maintained by diesel engine crews. There is no need for crew members with exceptional skills or experience.
5.8.8 Others:The dual-fuel-electric installation provides excellent propulsion characteristics for navigation in ice, due to the availability of full propeller torque at zero speed and excellent manoeuvring characteristics. Dual-fuel-electric installations can easily cope with the power requirements of dynamic positioning systems. This might become a valuable feature, as an increasing amount of offshore LNG terminals is envisaged.
5.9 Future operating profiles:When specifying propulsion machinery options for LNG carriers it is essential to consider the differences in operating profiles, fleet configurations and shipping routes. he basic case today is an approx. 138,000 m3 vessel with an operating speed of around 19.5 knots and the corresponding power required at the 80
propeller of about 27 MW. However, future operating profiles of LNG carriers will require more flexibility from the power plant. Already there have been inquiries about ships that would normally operate at about 15 knots, but have to be capable of doing 19 knots on spot cargo trades. It is then very important that the power plant is efficient also in part-load operation. The maximum required electrical power for cargo pumping and other consumers is roughly 6 MW whereas the minimum can be less than 1 MW. As stated previously, the energy in the boil-off gas will vary considerably during the round voyage of an LNG carrier. When converting the energy content available in the boil-off gas of the above-mentioned size of LNG carrier into mechanical power at the propeller shaft using modern dual-fuel engines, figures ranging from the 12 MW in the worst case up to 25 MW at the best can be calculated for the laden voyage. In ballast, the corresponding figures are typically about half, but can be even lower. Thus, even in the best case the natural boil-off would not be enough to cope with the energy consumption, and either forced boil-off gas or supplementary liquid fuel is needed to make up the shortfall. The selection of supplementary fuel depends on the result of a feasibility study taking into account not only the operating profile of the ship but also oil price trends and the availability of bunkers of the correct grade in the vicinity of the LNG terminals. One option might be not to use the boil-off gas as fuel for propulsion power at all. Instead, this gas could be reliquefied and returned back to the cargo tanks to be carried to the final destination. Propulsion could then be based on diesel engines burning heavy fuel oil, as in almost any other modern large cargo vessel today. Suitable reliquefaction plant has been tested in marine conditions but the technology is not yet considered mature. The plant would be quite expensive and imposes a high electrical demand. Therefore, in addition to the technical risk, a reliquefaction plant is very sensitive to the ratio of LNG to heavy fuel oil prices.
5.10 Market Introduction:The first dual-fuel-electric ships running on LNG, Viking Energy and Stril Pioner, are in operation since 2002 and the first dual-fuel-electric LNG carrier, Gaz de France Energy, is currently nearing completion and is scheduled to enter Commercial operation in November this year.
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CHAPTER 6
GAS TURBINE ALTERNATIVES

Gas turbine is, in essence, designed to burn gas. As electric drive is being increasingly used and accepted, gas turbines are becoming more and more potential as prime movers. When coupled to an exhaust heat utilising steam turbine, fuel efficiency of such a so called COGES plant increases to a very competitive level. Most gas turbines yield around 20..24 MW in COGES use, thus requiring a booster diesel generator set to reach the power level required in a contemporary large LNG carrier. Figure 3 presents a schematic view of such a machinery.
Figure 3 Gas turbine option with two electrical motors for redundancy. Gas turbine burns the boil-off
6.1 Aero-derivative Marine Gas Turbines:Aero-derivative gas turbines have entered the commercial marine propulsion market in the 1990s. Before the 1990s, most marine gas turbine applications were naval vessels, but there are some notorious exceptions. The most famous is GTS Finnjet, commissioned in 1977, built by Wrtsil's Helsinki shipyard as hull number 407. Two Pratt & Whitney FT4C-1D aero-derivative gas turbines give her displacement hull with Swedish/Finnish Ice Class 1A Super a speed of 33.5 knots. After 25 years in the business, she still going strong and is very popular with her passengers. What makes a gas turbine suitable or even ideal for marine propulsion applications?
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9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
High output; Compact dimensions; Low weight; High torque; Low noise and vibrations; Low emission; Low lube oil consumption; Low maintenance; Rapid on-site engine module change-out; Rapid engine exchange.
6.2 Advantages of Marine Aero-derivative Gas Turbines:6.2.1 Operation:

Gas turbines do not emit black smoke during transient loads; Gas turbines pick up load very rapidly, at a rate of about 1 MW per second; Turbines are "hands-off" machines, if the control system does not indicate any problems, it does not need any maintenance activity. During start-up, operation and shut-down, the gas turbine is operated through the turbine control system, which controls fuel management, but also monitors turbine condition. If any parameter exceeds pre-set limits, the turbine control system will give and alarm and reduce turbine load to avoid damage. In case of serious problems, the control system will shut down the engine.
6.2.2 Maintenance:
Gas turbine control system monitors engine performance and condition "on-line"; "On-condition" maintenance avoids unnecessary scheduled maintenance, replace what needs to be replaced;
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Modular gas turbine construction allows for rapid exchange of engine modules, avoiding lengthy on-site repairs; Gas turbine size and weight allows for a complete engine change-out onsite within hours, without dry-docking or extended stays in port; Gas turbine and spares can be air freighted worldwide.
6.2.3 Reliability and availability:

Aero-derivative gas turbines provide the very high reliability (> 99.5%) and availability (97.5%) associated with aero engines;
6.2.4 Environment:
Low NOx and SOx emissions; Low particulates emission; No visible smoke during transient loads; No fuel sludge from heavy fuel oils.
6.2.5 Noise and vibration:

Gas turbines are rotary machines, inherently low structure borne noise; Gas turbines packages feature an acoustic enclosure, reducing engine room noise levels and improving the quality of the working environment in the engine room; Resilient package mounting reduces structure borne noise even further; High pitched air borne noise is easily attenuated; Lower investment in air borne and structure borne noise insulation.
6.2.6 Vessel design:

Low weight and compact dimension of gas turbine and ancillary systems allows design freedom in terms of location of engine room in the vessel; Smaller engine room leaves more space for revenue making purposes; Low weight allows the engine room to be moved away from the bottom of the vessel; Low noise and vibration levels improve crew and passenger comfort, allowing engine room spaces to be located closer to accommodation areas;
6.2.7 Propulsion plant design:

Gas turbines have exhaust gas mass flow and temperature, which makes exhaust gas heat recovery both technically and economically feasible.
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6.2.8 Installation:
Gas turbine, control system and ancillaries are packaged on skids, ready for installation in the building blocks in the shipyard, speeding up the construction process; Gas turbine package with ancillaries are factory tested, reducing commissioning time in the shipyard; Gas turbine packages and ancillaries are assembled in the factory by specialized personnel, avoiding assembly problems and delays in the shipyard; Gas turbines are air cooled, eliminating the need for elaborate high and low temperature cooling water systems; Gas turbine lube oil is not exposed to the combustion process, resulting in very low lube oil consumption and eliminating the need for extensive lube oil conditioning systems; Gas turbines operate on MDO, obviating the need for fuel bunker heating, fuel line tracing and fuel conditioning systems
6.3 Disadvantages of Marine Aero-derivative Gas Turbines:6.3.1 Thermal efficiency:

Gas turbine thermal efficiency is lower than the thermal efficiency of comparable diesel engines. Thermal efficiency of aero derivative gas turbines in the 20 - 30 MW class ranges from 36.5 to 40%. This makes the single cycle fuel consumption of a gas turbine about 20% higher than that of a caparable diesel engine; Gas turbine thermal efficiency is proportional to gas turbine output. Thermal efficiency of small gas turbines, in the 2 - 5 MW class, hardly exceeds 30%;
6.3.2 Liquid fuel quality restrictions:]

Gas turbines can operate on either gaseous fuel or liquid fuel or both simultaneously, without any restriction in the ratio between fuels. However there are some severe restrictions on the quality of the liquid fuel. Vanadium and sulfur content should be kept within the specified limits in order to avoid high temperature corrosion of the turbine blades, which leads to loss of engine performance. In practice, the fuel specification completely rule out the use of any residual fuel and the cheaper distillates as well. ISO 8317-1996 Class F Marine Fuels MDO-DMA and DMX are suitable, but DMA might be a bit high on Sulfur.
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6.3.3 Initial investments:

Initial investment for a gas turbine engine in the 20 - 30 MW class is approximately 15 - 20% higher than in diesel engines of comparable output. For smaller gas turbines, especially derivatives of helicopter engines, the price difference is even higher; All the above reasons might spell doom for many a marine gas turbine project. An rightly so, if the advantages do not offset the disadvantages of the use of gas turbines, the vessel will be an economic disaster. When the first series of gas turbines for cruise vessels were contracted in the late 1990s, some people temporarily lost their sense of perspective. All kinds of projects traditionally featuring diesels as prime movers, were suddenly re-engined with gas turbines of all makes and sizes. None of them made it through the project phase. Many of these projects failed because of the low thermal efficiency of smaller gas turbines. Even projects involving large gas turbines failed, mainly because of the high specific fuel consumption of the gas turbine and high fuel cost. With residual fuels usually being between USD. 60 and USD. 100 cheaper per ton than MDO and diesels being 20% more fuel efficient, single cycle gas turbines have a hard time competing.
6.4 Gas Turbine Myths and Misunderstandings

In the marine community there are still a lot of myths and misunderstandings about gas turbines.
Myth:
Gas turbines have very low torque and cannot be used in mechanical drive applications.
Fact:
Gas turbines can develop a very high torque, because the gas generator is aerodynamically coupled to the free power turbine. This allows the gas generator to spin up even when the free power turbine is stationary because moment of inertia of the propeller. When the gas generator develops sufficient air flow, the torque of the free power turbines overcomes the inertia of propeller.
Myth:
Gas turbines are unable to take instant load application.
Fact:
The design of the gas turbine, with the gas generator aero-dynamically coupled to the free power turbine, lends itself very well to instant application of heavy loads, which occur when a generator suddenly trips off-line. The speed of the
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free power turbine might drop momentarily, but the gas generator will generate sufficient airflow to correct free power turbine speed almost instantly.
Myth:
Gas turbines only run on jet fuel.
Fact:
Gas turbines are perfectly happy to run on any liquid fuel available, as long as the combustion properties are all right. Technically it is possible to burn well seperated residual fuels. However, commonly available residual fuels have high contents of Sulfur, Vanadium and alkali metals. The marine liquid fuel specifications of the gas turbine manufacturers have been compiled to ensure satisfactory hot section replacement intervals. Distillate fuels, such as MDO DMX and DMA (ISO-8217:1996(E), Category ISO-F) are acceptable, provided the Sulfur content is below 1.0%. Higher Sulfur and alkali metals content will reduce hot section lifetime accordingly. Vanadium content is given as 0.5 ppm maximum to reach a satisfactory lifetime. Higher Vanadium content will accellerate high temperature corrosion of the turbine blades. The replacement cost of a prematurely worn hot section will definitely offset the gains of using noncompliant fuels.
6.5 Marine Gas Turbine Applications

There are indeed some commercial marine applications in which gas turbines perform very well: Fast ferries: Low weight and small size of gas turbines, as well as simple arrangement of ancillary systems, leave more space for revenue making purposes; High gas turbine output makes it possible to satisfy high speed required. In some cases one fast ferry can replace two conventional ferries.
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Cruise vessels: Combined cycle operation reduces specific fuel consumption to more competitive levels. Usually one gas turbine can service the power requirements of the entire vessel; Lower engine room space requirements allow for an increase in passenger capacity within the same dimensions; Low noise and vibration enhance passenger comfort; No visible smoke makes operations in Alaskan water possible; Low NOx and SOx emissions allow operations in environmentally sensitive areas.
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CHAPTER 7
GAS TURBINE ELECTRIC DRIVE LNG CARRIER

The gas turbine electric drive power plant is the power plant that allows most flexibility in the design and layout of the vessel. The gas turbine drives the propeller shaft by way of an electric shaft. This arrangement allows the gas turbine generator power plant to be located away from the tank top. In this case, the power plant is housed in the superstructure, located over the mooring winch deck. The engineroom size can therefore be reduced substantially, increasing cargo capacity by approximately 19,000 cubic meter. The traditional LNG carrier hull can be maintained, to minimize redesign costs.
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7.1 Gas turbine electric drive combine cycle propulsion

1 x Dual-fuel marine gas turbine generator, output 27 MWe; 1 x Steam turbine generator, output approximately 10 MWe; 1 x Exhaust gas boiler with supplementary firing and duct firing capabilities; 1 x Frequency controlled electric motor; 1 x FPP.
As can be seen in the fuel consumption and thermal efficiency diagram, the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine electric drive power plant exceeds 50 % in combined cycle operation. At operating conditions, the thermal efficiency is approximately 48 %. The free power turbine of the gas turbine drives the generator. The generator feeds into the main switchboard. The main switchboard feeds all electric consumers. The propeller is driven by a frequency controlled electric motor. The exhaust gasses from the gas turbine raise steam in an exhaust gas boiler. This steam is used to produce power in a 10 MWe steam turbine generator. The steam turbine generator also feeds into the main switchboard.
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7.2 The advantages are:

High thermal efficiency; Up to 13.8 % more cargo capacity; Propulsion and power generation redundancy; Dual-fuel capability; No hull redesign cost; FPP can be used without reversing gear; Low maintenance; Simplified engineroom arrangement, smaller steam system, smaller cooling water system; Reduced installation and commissioning time in the shipyard through factory assembled and tested package.
7.3 The disadvantage are:

Energy conversion losses in the electric drive system; Gas compressor required to supply gaseous fuel at 30 bar pressure to the gas turbine. Parasitic load can go up to 2.3 MWe; More complex and expensive than mechanical drive; The operational profile of the power plant can be divided in a few distinct service modes:
7.4 Normal cruising speed:

7.4.1 Loaded: The gas turbine generator is the prime mover, using the available BOG as primary fuel. Gas turbine exhaust gas heat is recovered in the boiler to generate steam. The gas turbine generator and the steam turbine generator feed the electric consumers from the main switchboard. The electric motor mounted on the propeller shaft drives the propeller. In ballast: Heel scenario: The gas turbine generator is the prime mover, using the available BOG as primary fuel. To make up the balance of the fuel requirements, extra LNG has been left in the tanks to be regassified when required. Gas turbine exhaust gas heat is recovered in the boiler to generate steam. The gas turbine generator and the steam turbine generator feed the electric consumers from the main switchboard. The electric motor mounted on the propeller shaft drives the propeller; Heel + liquid fuel scenario: The gas turbine generator is the prime mover, using the available BOG as primary fuel. To make up the balance of the fuel requirements, liquid fuel (MDO) will be suppleted. Gas turbine exhaust gas heat is recovered in the boiler to generate steam. The gas turbine generator and the
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steam turbine generator feed the electric consumers from the main switchboard. The electric motor mounted on the propeller shaft drives the propeller; Liquid fuel scenario: The gas turbine generator is the prime mover, using liquid fuel as primary fuel. Gas turbine exhaust gas heat is recovered in the boiler to generate steam. The gas turbine generator and the steam turbine generator feed the electric consumers from the main switchboard. The electric motor mounted on the propeller shaft drives the propeller. 7.4.2 Maneuvering: The gas turbine generator is the prime mover, using the available BOG as primary fuel. The gas turbine generator and the steam turbine generator feeds into the main switchboard. The main switchboard supplies all electric consumers, including 4 MWe propulsion power to the propeller and 2 MWe bowthruster load; Should the gas turbine generator fail during maneuvering, can the steam turbine generator pick up the propulsion load. Steam for the steam turbine generator will be raised by firing the boiler on either BOG or liquid fuel or a mixture of both; Should the steam turbine generator fail during maneuvering, can the gas turbine generator supply the electric consumers through the main switchboard. 7.4.3 Harbour load: The steam turbine generator is supplying the electric consumers through the main switchboard. Steam is being raised by firing the boiler on liquid fuel. 7.4.4 Cargo discharge: The steam turbine generator is supplying the cargo pumps and the electric consumers through the main switchboard. Steam is being raised by firing the boiler on liquid fuel. 7.4.5 Emergency situations: Should the gas turbine generator fail during the voyage, can the steam turbine generator provide approximately 8 MWe to the propeller shaft through the electric motor on the propeller shaft. Steam is being raised by firing the boiler on either BOG, BOG and liquid fuel or liquid fuel only, depending on availability. 8 MW propulsion power should keep the vessel maneuverable and she can proceed to the nearest port for repairs, should it prove impossible to remedy the problems at sea. Should the steam turbine generator fail during the voyage, can the gas turbine generator supply the electric consumers through the main switchboard. With just over 4 MWe necessary for the electric consumers at sea, sufficient propulsion power remains to ensure good seakeeping and minimize delays in the schedule. If the problems can't be corrected at sea, spares and replacement equipment can be loaded at the next port of call.
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7.5 Gas Turbine Electric Podded Drive LNG Carrier

The present LNG carrier is radically redesigned to exploit the full advantages of combined cycle gas turbine electric drive propulsion system. The engine room in the present design has been removed to make space for an extra cargo tank and MDO bunkers. The gas turbine generator, the steam turbine generator, the exhaust gas boiler, the condensers, the steam system and fuel handling systems have been moved to a dedicated superstructure on the main deck, over the mooring winch deck. Similar mooring deck arrangements can be found on cruise vessels and post-panamax container vessels.
One or two podded drive propulsors are mounted beneath the hull to replace the FPP and the rudder. The podded drives place the main propulsion motors outside the vessel, saving space inside the vessel for revenue making purposes. Since there is no need to taper in the hull towards the stern boss, the parallel midship is extended to the transom. The keel gradually rises aft of frame 70 to provide a smooth flow of water to the podded drives. Without any taper, the hull frames are U-shaped and consequentially hull construction is much simpler and cheaper
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.An extra cargo tank between frame 71 and 30 could increase cargo capacity by up to 24,000 cubic meter. Aft of cargo tank 5 between the cofferdam and the aft peak bulkhead MDO bunker can be located, with a total capacity of up to 5,200 cubic meter.
7.6 Gas turbine electric drive combine cycle propulsion

1 x Dual-fuel marine gas turbine generator, output 27 MWe; 1 x Steam turbine generator, output approximately 10 MWe; 1 x Exhaust gas boiler with supplementary firing and duct firing capabilities; 1 x Frequency controlled electric motor; 1 (or 2) x Podded drive(s). As can be seen in the fuel consumption and thermal efficiency diagram, the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine electric drive power plant exceeds 50 % in combined cycle operation. At operating conditions, the thermal efficiency is approximately 48 %.
The free power turbine of the gas turbine drives the generator. The generator feeds into the main switchboard. The main switchboard feeds all electric consumers. The propeller is driven by a frequency controlled electric motor. The exhaust gasses from the gas turbine raise steam in an exhaust gas boiler. This steam is used to produce power in a 10 MWe steam turbine generator. The steam turbine generator also feeds into the main switchboard.
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7.6.1 The advantages are:

High thermal efficiency; Up to 17.4 % more cargo capacity; Increase propulsion efficiency through podded drives; Increased maneuverability; Propulsion and power generation redundancy; Dual-fuel capability; Lower hull construction cost; Low maintenance; Simplified engineroom arrangement, smaller steam system, smaller cooling water system; Reduced installation and commissioning time in the shipyard through factory assembled and tested package.
7.6.2 The disadvantage are:

Energy conversion losses in the electric drive system; Gas compressor required to supply gaseous fuel at 30 bar pressure to the gas turbine. Parasitic load can go up to 2.3 MWe; More complex and expensive than mechanical drive;
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The operational profile of the power plant can be divided in a few distinct service modes:
7.7 Normal cruising speed:

7.7.1 Loaded: The gas turbine generator is the prime mover, using the available BOG as primary fuel. Gas turbine exhaust gas heat is recovered in the boiler to generate steam. The gas turbine generator and the steam turbine generator feed the electric consumers from the main switchboard. The electric motor mounted on the propeller shaft drives the propeller. 7.7.2 In ballast: Heel scenario: The gas turbine generator is the prime mover, using the available BOG as primary fuel. To make up the balance of the fuel requirements, extra LNG has been left in the tanks to be regassified when required. Gas turbine exhaust gas heat is recovered in the boiler to generate steam. The gas turbine generator and the steam turbine generator feed the electric consumers from the main switchboard. The electric motor mounted on the propeller shaft drives the propeller; Heel + liquid fuel scenario: The gas turbine generator is the prime mover, using the available BOG as primary fuel. To make up the balance of the fuel requirements, liquid fuel (MDO) will be suppleted. Gas turbine exhaust gas heat is recovered in the boiler to generate steam. The gas turbine generator and the steam turbine generator feed the electric consumers from the main switchboard. The electric motor mounted on the propeller shaft drives the propeller; Liquid fuel scenario: The gas turbine generator is the prime mover, using liquid fuel as primary fuel. Gas turbine exhaust gas heat is recovered in the boiler to generate steam. The gas turbine generator and the steam turbine generator feed the electric consumers from the main switchboard. The electric motor mounted on the propeller shaft drives the propeller. 7.7.3 Maneuvering: The gas turbine generator is the prime mover, using the available BOG as primary fuel. The gas turbine generator and the steam turbine generator feeds into the main switchboard. The main switchboard supplies all electric consumers, including 4 MWe propulsion power to the propeller and 2 MWe bowthruster load; Should the gas turbine generator fail during maneuvering, can the steam turbine generator pick up the propulsion load. Steam for the steam turbine generator will be raised by firing the boiler on either BOG or liquid fuel or a mixture of both; Should the steam turbine generator fail during maneuvering, can the gas turbine generator supply the electric consumers through the main switchboard.
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7.7.4 Harbour load: The steam turbine generator is supplying the electric consumers through the main switchboard. Steam is being raised by firing the boiler on liquid fuel. 7.7.5 Cargo discharge: The steam turbine generator is supplying the cargo pumps and the electric consumers through the main switchboard. Steam is being raised by firing the boiler on liquid fuel. 7.7.6 Emergency situations: Should the gas turbine generator fail during the voyage, can the steam turbine generator provide approximately 8 MWe to the propeller shaft through the electric motor on the propeller shaft. Steam is being raised by firing the boiler on either BOG, BOG and liquid fuel or liquid fuel only, depending on availability. 8 MW propulsion power should keep the vessel maneuverable and she can proceed to the nearest port for repairs, should it prove impossible to remedy the problems at sea. Should the steam turbine generator fail during the voyage, can the gas turbine generator supply the electric consumers through the main switchboard. With just over 4 MWe necessary for the electric consumers at sea, sufficient propulsion power remains to ensure good seakeeping and minimize delays in the schedule. If the problems can't be corrected at sea, spares and replacement equipment can be loaded at the next port of call.
7.8 Increasing LNG Carrier Cargo Capacity

The current cargo capacity of 138,000 cubic meter can be increased substantially when the engine room bulkhead and the aft cofferdam are moved further aft. Changing the overall length or the draft is not recommended, as some major LNG ports have size restrictions. Changing these parameters would impair the flexibility of the vessel. Gas turbine propulsion will allow a rearrangement of the engine room, since the gas turbine is much smaller than the steam turbine and its steam boilers.
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Moving the ER bulkhead aft from frame 71 to frame 45 extends the cargo hold by 20.8 meter. If the gain in gargo hold length is distributed over the four cargo tanks, an increase of 19,000 cubic meter in cargo capacity can be realised. The advantage of this version of the LNG carrier is that it can accommodate both gas turbine electric and gas turbine mechanical drive. The hull form does not have to be changed, so the redesign costs are minimal.
A total rearrangement of the LNG carrier would yield even better results. Cargo capacity would increase by 24,000 cubic meter over the standard design, while the increase thermal efficiency of the combined cycle gas turbine power plant brings fuel cost down by 40%. Increased propulsion efficiency from the podded drive system would bring fuel consumption down even further. Newbuiding cost can be reduced because of the simplified construction of the aft ship, without complex curves around the propeller boss.
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CHAPTER 8
RELIQIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
While reliquefaction is widely used in gas handling on land, it has been used on board ship so far only on LPG carriers.Recently, the technology for reliquefying LNG on board ship has been matured and commercialised. The present analysis is based on the Moss Reliquefaction, sold worldwide by Hamworthy KSE (Ref. [3]). The patented system (Moss RS) for reliquefying boiloff gas, establishes a solution for pumping LNG back to the tanks and selling more LNG to the buyers of gas. The boil-off gas reliquefaction concept is based on a closed nitrogen cycle extracting heat from the boil-off gas. Several novel features such as separation and removal of incondensable components have resulted in a compact system with low power consumption. The concept has the following technical merits: The nitrogen in the LNG boil-off gas (BOG) is not reliquefied; this results in reduced nitrogen in the tanks during the voyage, better control of tank pressure and lower power requirement for the RS system. The system uses only proven components with extensive references from air-separation and peak-shaving plants world-wide. The system is prefabricated on skids for easy installation and hook-up. The system has automatic capacity control. The system can be stopped when the cargo pumps are in operation. This eliminates the need for extra generator capacity. During ballast voyage, the cargo tank temperature can be maintained by spraying reliquefied LNG back into the cargo tanks. The system must be installed with 100% redundancy. No extra personnel are required for operation and maintenance. The process can be described as follows: The LNG boil-off is compressed by the low duty (LD) compressor (BOG compressor), and sent directly to the socalled cold box. The cold box in which the boil-off is reliquefied is cooled by a closed refrigeration loop (Brayton cycle). Nitrogen is the working medium. Fig. 21 shows the standard Moss RS reliquefaction system. 99
Standard Moss RS reliquefaction system
8.1 BOIL-OFF CYCLE:The cargo cycle consists of an LD compressor, a plate-fin cryogenic exchanger, a separator and an LNG return pump. Boil-off is evacuated from the LNG tanks by means of a conventional centrifugal low duty com-pressor. The vapour is compressed to 4.5 bar and cooled at this pressure to approximately 160C in a plate-fin cryogenic heat exchanger. This ensures condensation of hydrocarbons to LNG. The fraction of nitro-gen present in the boil-off that cannot be condensed at this condition remains as gas bubbles in the LNG. Phase separation takes place in the liquid separator. From the separator, the LNG is dumped back to the storage tanks, while he nitrogenrich gas phase is discharged (to atmosphere or burnt in an oxidizer).
8.2 NITROGEN CYCLE:The cryogenic temperature inside the cold box is produced by means of a nitrogen compression-expansion cycle, shown in Fig. Nitrogen gas at a pressure of 13.5 bar is compressed to 57 bar in a 3-stage centrifugal compressor. The gas is cooled by water (seawater or indirect) after each stage. After the last cooler, the gas is led to the warm part of the cryogenic heat exhanger where it is pre-cooled to about -110C and then expanded to a pressure of 14.5 bar in the expander. The gas leaves the expander at about -163C and is then introduced into the cold part of the cryogenic heat exchanger where it cools and reliquefies the boil-off gas to LNG.
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Nitrogen compressor/expander The nitrogen then continues through the warm part of the cryogenic heat exchanger before it is returned to the suction side of the 3-stage compressor. The N2-compressor/expander unit is three-stage integrated gear centrifugal compressor with one expander stage. The unit has a gear with 4 pinions where each of the 4 wheels is coupled to a separate pinion. The result is that the expander work goes directly into the gearbox and relieves the electric motor. The advantages of this solution are: More compact design Reduced cost Improved control of the refrigeration Reduced power consumption.
8.3 CONTROL SYSTEM:Generally, the temperature in the nitrogen loop decides the quantity of N2 in the coolant circuit. Increasing or decreasing the amount of nitrogen in the loop changes the cooling capacity. The amount is changed by injecting or withdrawing nitrogen from the receiver. If the cooling capacity is too high, the inlet expander temperature will decrease. The control valve to the receiver at the compressors discharge will open to withdraw the nitrogen from the main loop. Correspondingly, if the cooling capacity is too low, the inlet expander temperature will increase. The control valve from the receiver to the compressor suction side will open to inject nitrogen into the main loop. The relationship between cooling capacity and pressure changes is based on the fact that a turbo compressor is a constant volume flow machine. When the
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suction pressure is changing, the mass flow is changing and, correspondingly, the cooling capacity. The pressure ratio for the compressor is constant and independent of the suction pressure. Even if the cooling capacity is reduced, the outlet expander temperature will be nearly the same. The BOG cycle is an independent loop. The cargo tank pressure is kept approximately constant by varying the mass flow through the compressor. The boil-off compressor will be a two-stage centrifugal compressor with diffuser guide vanes (DGV) for controlling the capacity. There is DGV on both stages, and they work in parallel, controlled by the same signal.
8.4 REDUNDENCY: Redundancy is required by the International Classification Society Association (IACS), as discussed later. The requirement is fulfilled if one of the following options is installed: Thermal oxidizer or flare system capable of burning the maximum boiloff rate. Two 100% reliquefaction plant with one cold box, comprising the following: Two BOG-compressor units (twostage centrifugal compressor) Two N2compressor/ expander units (three-stage integrated gear centrifugal compressor with one expander stage) o o o o One cold box One LNG phase separator One LNG forced return pump Auxiliary systems
Which one to operate of the two BOGcompressor units and N2-compressor/ expander units can be freely chosen by operating the applicable valves. Changeover of equipment is done manually, and must be done only when the machinery is shut down. Simultaneous parallel operation of the equipment will not be possible. As the reliability of todays steam turbine driven LNG carriers is considered high, an alternative system must not deteriorate the availability of the LNG carriers. The reliquefaction system therefore only uses proven components first class, high quality with extensive references. The low-duty compressors in the RS system are the same as used on all LNG carriers today. The refrigeration cycle is in operation on the LNG carrier S/S LNG Jamal, nd the 3-stage compressor with expander is operating on FPSOs and in onshore process plants.
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The proposed cold box (plate fin heat exchanger) is widely used in onshore cryogenic installations. An availability analysis concludes 99.98 % availability, which is at the same level or better than ship machinery in general.
8.5 LIQUIFICATION PLANT:Hamworthy KSE was awarded the contract by the Norwegian gas distribution company Gasnor in October 2001. The LNG production capacity is 60 ton/ day (2500kg/hr), which corresponds to the boil-off rate on traditional size LNG carriers. This plant uses the same type of cooling cycle (Brayton) and control prin-ciples as the reliquefaction system for LNG carriers. The same 3-stage N2 compressor with expander and the same type of cold box that will be used on LNG Carriers are also installed. However, as the plant is onshore and the feed gas comes from the gas pipelines from the offshore fields in the North Sea, this plant needs additional equipment and systems. The plant shown in Fig thus consists of the following basic parts: Natural gas dehydration unit Natural gas CO2 removal unit Nitrogen cooling circuit (same as proposed for LNG carriers) Main liquefier (cold box) with LNG receiver (similar type as proposed for LNG carriers) LNG storage tank and truck loading station. Natural gas from the high-pressure feed line is reduced in pressure down to 120 barg and dehydrated down to a H2O content of 1 ppm. The dry feed gas is further reduced in pressure down to 52 barg prior to removal of CO2 down to a level of 50 ppm. Liquefaction is accomplished at about 50 bar abs against cold nitrogen gas, which is cooled in a single-expansion cycle with three compressor stages and one expander stage. The heaviest gas fractions are separated out and the gas liquefies in the lower-mid section of the cold box. The liquid is sub-cooled in the bottom section and led to the LNG flash drum via a valve, where the pressure is reduced to 0.5 barg, and the LNG is sent to a storage tank. The system is equipped to give a variable production rate by adjusting the mass flow of nitrogen. The first LNG was produced on this plant on March 15, 2003.
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LNG carriers, like oil tankers, are not permitted to immobilize their propulsion machinery while in port and port areas. Hence, redundancy is required. For the steam ship, redundancy is considered fulfilled by having two boilers, whereas no redundancy is required for the single steam turbine, propeller shaft and propeller. For diesel engines, which require more maintenance on a routine basis than steam turbines, either a multi-engine configuration or an alternative propulsion power supply possibility for a single engine configuration is required. Shuttle tankers in the North Sea are equipped with twin low speed engines and twin propellers. This ensured that approximately half of the propulsion power
Redundancy Considerations for Reliquefaction Plant for LNG Carriers The International Association of (marine) Classification Societies (IACS) redundancy considerations for a reliquefaction plant for LNG carriers are as stipulated in Fig. 24. With the ME- I engine, the configuration shown in Fig. 5, comprising one reliquefaction unit, one high pressure compressor and one oxidizer, will comply with redundancy requirements and offer full fuel flexibility. Redundant low speed engine propulsion concepts, as outlined above, ensure that sufficient power is available for safe navigation and, for the twin engine concept with completely separated engine rooms, even an additional margin towards any damage is obtained. For LNG carriers, a twin engine configuration is proposed to alleviate any possible doubt on reliability and redundancy. The twin-engine configuration is shown in Fig. 25.
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CHAPTER 9
VOYAGE- ANALYSIS & PERFORMANCE

9.1 SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVES
The feasibility of gas-diesel engines for propulsion and electric power generation onboard LNG carriers was studied by engine builders some ten years ago. The need for gas compression turned out to be a too high burden for the operating economy of the ship. The quantifiable characteristics of the other alternatives were compared using a specially developed comparison tool, whereas their nonquantifiable characteristics were discussed and compared together with major LNG carrier owners, operators, managers and shipyards over the past few years. When comparing the operational economy of the various alternatives, it is important to take the whole machinery installation into account. Two-stroke diesel engines have high efficiency, but the need to reliquefy the boil-off gas gives installations featuring this type of engines a higher total energy consumption. The most attractive alternative to the traditional steam turbine installation turned out to be dual-fuelelectric machinery. As a runner up but at clear distance to dual fuelelectric machinery, an installation featuring twin two-stroke engines, each in direct-drive to a fixed-pitch propeller, a reliquefaction plant, and a group of fourstroke diesel generating sets emerged.
9.2 ONE-TIME INVESTMENT COSTS

To determine the difference in one-time investment costs, cost of relevant machinery components are added up. The calculation includes components like prime mover, boiler plant, reduction gear, shaftline, propeller, and so forth. Calculation reveals, that the three alternative machineries all cost less initially, than the steammechanical machinery. Figure 5 presents these onetime machinery investment costs. Figure 5 One-time machinery investment costs
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As the graph indicates, the novel machineries investment cost is around 3.7 MUSD less, than the steam-mechanical machinerys investment cost. This represents an about 15..30% reduction in machinery investment cost. This cost difference can be amortized to an economic lifetime of 20 years, with an 8% opportunity cost for money. Resulting is an annual capital cost difference between 320 000 and 650 000 USD, in favour of the novel machineries. To put this investment cost difference into perspective in the ship scale, large LNG carriers have recently been contracted at prices of 160..170 MUSD. In ship scale the investment cost difference is thus about 2..4%.
9.3
RECURRING VARIABLE COSTS
Variable costs are usually divided into two different sub-categories, operating costs and voyage costs. Operating costs are semi-variable, being incurred by the vessel being kept operational. These costs can only be avoided by laying up the vessel. Operating costs consist, mainly, of manning costs, insurance premiums, annual small repairs and maintenance, various stores and lubricating oils. Operating costs vary from ship to ship, and operator to operator, but on an average, annual operating costs can be assumed to be around 3.2 MUSD for a large, contemporary LNG carrier. Voyage costs, on the other hand, are truly variable costs. They are voyagedependant, and incurred by the actual voyage. Voyage costs include fuel oil costs, pilotage, fairway and canal dues and port changes. Voyage costs are very much dependant on bunker prices, cruising speed, boil-off rate and operating route, just to mention few, but can here be assumed to be about 4.8 MUSD per annum. Thus for reference all recurring annual variable costs can be calculated to sum up to about 8.0 MUSD.
Figure 6 Recurring annual variable cost, versus route length, presented as difference to the steam-mechanical machinery 106
However, the only relevant differences between the four options are in their respective machineries. It would thus be fair to assume, that the majority of operational costs, as well as some voyage costs, like pilotage, port dues etc, are equal for all machineries. The only differing variable costs thus are, in fact, incurred by the choice of machinery. Figure 6 presents the three novel machineries annual variable costs. The comparison is presented as a difference to steam turbines costs, so it does not indicate an absolute cost level, but relevant. The main difference comes from fuel oil costs. Lubricating and cylinder oil costs are practically nil for both steam and gas turbines, but are becoming relevant for medium speed, and especially for slow speed diesels. There are also small differences in maintenance costs, but these differences are rather insignificant. When compared to the estimated annual operating and voyage cost sum up of 8.0 MUSD, both diesel-electrical and gas turbine machineries seem to be able to yield around 9% savings.
9.4 WHAT AFFECTS THE VARIABLE COSTS?

Variable costs are, naturally, very much dependant on boundary conditions, which are applied in calculations. But what happens, if some of the boundary conditions change? This is a question, which is important from the operators point of view, as the operator can only affect some of the boundary conditions. Some prevailing boundary conditions, like price of bunker and value of LNG are, from the operators point of view, given.
9.4.1 Operating route

LNG is transported over very varying distances. Its way below 1000 nautical miles from Algeria to the other side of the Mediterranean, while from Persian Gulf into the Far East it is well over 6000 nautical miles. Length of the LNG trading routes thus varies quite widely today, and maybe even more in the future. Short routes of course have relatively more port time, as well as time spent maneuvering and cruising at slow speeds. In long hauls the full speed, open sea leg is emphasized. One could thus expect, that length of the operating route might play a role in machinery selection. But, as Figure 6 shows us, length of the operating route does not really have relevance. The calculation was done for three routes, representing lengths of about 1700, 3800, and 6500 nautical miles. Even though at slow speeds the steam and gas turbines go down in efficiency, while diesels do not, there are no noticeable differences in the end results. This might necessarily not be the case in very short routes, from 300 to 1000 nm, where the full speed leg is really small. But, at least from 1700 nm upwards, the length of the route does not play a role in machinery selection.
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9.4.2 Fuel flexibility

Fuel flexibility means the ability for the machinery to utilise varying proportions of bunker and LNG. Depending on the tank insulation and ambient conditions, among other things, boil-off equals 40..60% of the ships total fuel input. The remaining 40..60% of fuel input is usually provided with bunker. But if bunker price is very high, or if LNG is valued very low, it might prove more economical to force additional boil-off to feed the machinery. Under such market conditions, the most economical operating mode would thus be to have LNG input representing 100% of total fuel input. Fuel flexibility is therefore quite important from the operators point of view. When an LNG ship is operated for 30 years, or even longer, it is vital, that fuel costs can be minimised, by switching to the most economical fuel, following changes in market conditions. Steam-mechanical machinery has the ultimate fuel flexibility. Steam turbine can be equipped to LNG fuel inputs from 0% to 100%, and the rest of the fuel input can be the cheapest bunker available. This is a clear advantage of the steam turbine machinery, as, in fact, the actual boil-off rate varies following the ambient conditions. Steam turbine has no problem in consuming all the boil-off there may be. Gas turbines can here roughly be divided into two categories. First there are the aero-derivative gas turbines, which use clean distillate fuels like MGO as their liquid fuel. Then there are industrial gas turbines, which are able to burn heavier and cheaper intermediate fuels, such as IF30 or even IF180. Due to the differences in liquid fuel, these two types of gas turbines have differing operating economies. HFO-burning gas turbine has the second best fuel flexibility, being able to utilise LNG for 0% to 80% of total fuel input. This applies to gas turbines, which have their COGES cycle output around 22 MW. This LNG input range is wide enough for the gas turbine to be able to take all the boil-off which may be coming. At least 20% of fuel input must nevertheless be HFO, since this machinery is equipped with a booster diesel engine. MGO-burning gas turbines have the disadvantage of having to use rather expensive liquid fuel. For this reason it is usually not liquid fuel, which is used for additional fuel input, but forced boil-off. In such a case the amount of LNG input is fixed at gas turbines total fuel input, representing about 80% of total fuel input. This machinery has, from the economical point of view, no fuel flexibility at all. Total lack of fuel flexibility also applies to the re-liquefying diesel-mechanical machinery. This machinery uses 0% LNG as fuel input, and since the primemovers can not utilise LNG, the amount can not be changed. As long as the re-liquefaction plant is dimensioned correctly, it has the capacity to re-liquefy all the boil-off coming from the tanks. This machinery burns 100% bunker, no matter what its price in relation to LNG is. Diesel-electrical machinerys LNG input is also fixed. It is fixed at the amount of gas-burning diesel engines, while HFO input is fixed at the amount of single fuel diesel engines. This machinery must thus burn the pre-determined amounts of LNG and bunker, no matter what their prices are. Actually, since the amount of boil-off can vary, gas-diesel capacity must either be overdimensioned for normal use, or the occasional excess boil-off gas must be disposed of by burning it.
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9.4.3 Value of LNG

Of course, fuel flexibility has no meaning, unless the value of LNG, or price of HFO, changes. Actually, value of LNG is quite a complex issue. This is also, one could claim, the essential issue with respect to voyage costs, and subsequently to machinery selection. This is thus a question, which deserves some attention. As mentioned, boil-off gas is natural in each LNG carrier. Quantity of boil-off is not, however, dependant on the choice of machinery. First thing to note here is thus, that since the amount of natural boil-off is equal with all four machineries, it can be considered as free source of power in comparison. But, the fourth optional machinery, based on two stroke diesel engines, can not burn boil-off. Instead, the boil-off gas is re-liquefied, and put back into the cargo tanks. Because no boil-off is burnt, this machinery naturally burns much more liquid fuel than all the others. But, on the other hand, it is also able to deliver more cargo inside the same cargo tanks, than the alternativemachinery- including ships. To be able to compare this option justly, reliquefied boil-off gas must be assigned with some value. To highlight the importance of boil-off valuation, Figure 7 presents compositions of relevant variable costs for each four machineries.
Figure 7 Composition of relevant variable costs The figure also includes two COGES machineries. These refer to gas turbine based machineries, which can utilise different kinds of liquid fuels. As the amount of natural boil-off is not enough to give most gas turbines a 100% fuel input, back-up fuel must be added. If the gas turbine can utilise HFO, it is used. But if the gas turbine can only utilise MGO, it is, from economical point of view, too expensive to be burnt. In such a case the 100% fuel input for gas turbine is provided with additional LNG, which is forcefully vaporised. Such a ship will end up delivering less cargo than its counterparts, and the value of forced boil-off is thus added to its variable costs. In the figure above, LNG is assigned an energy-
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equivalent value to HFO. This means, that the energy contained within LNG is valued at the same price, as the energy contained in HFO. Looking at the figure it is also evident, that value of LNG is the key issue for profitability of re-liquefying technology, as well as for the MGO-burning gas turbine. If energy contained in LNG is more valuable than energy contained in HFO, it is good business not to burn it, but to re-liquefy, and to sell it at a higher price. But what is the right price of LNG? Unlike for example oil, natural gas or LNG does not really have a world market price, as such. Different buyers get their gas at different prices, representing varying production costs and differing competitive environments. Usually in long term contracts the gas price is pegged to a basket of alternative fuels, such as oil and coal. One way of determining the value of LNG is by estimating it through the concept of opportunity costs. If LNG would not be forced, it could be used in the buyers power plant for power production. This would mean, that the power producer needs to use less alternative fuels, such as crude oil, in his power production. In opportunity costing LNGs price could thus be set to the crude oils energy-equivalent price. With the crude price of 28 USD/barrel, this would translate into an LNG price of approximately 201 USD/tonne. Because natural gas is, at least in part, used due to its environmental merits, an environmental premium could be added to this value. But, it is often the producer of gas, who arranges the transportation. For the producer, LNG is not that expensive, as he could calculate it only to be worth the gas production and liquefying costs. At its very lowest, production and liquefying costs of LNG equal about 91 USD/tonne. In a medium sized offshore production plant, on the other hand, the production and liquefying costs sum up to around 147 USD/tonne. Table 1 summarises some of the alternative aspects into the value of LNG.
Table: Some different aspects into the value of LNG It would thus appear, that the value of re-liquefied, or forced boil-off, can be argued to be anything between 90..250 USD/tonne. LNG producer could use values of 90..150 USD/tonne, depending on market conditions, availability of LNG supply, and accounting policies. If all produced LNG could be sold at a good price, true opportunity costing values up to 230 USD/tonne should be used. On the other hand, LNG consumer would most likely be more correct in using values between 200..230 USD/tonne. Value of LNG is thus quite of an ambiguous concept. But has this any relevance with respect to annual variable costs? Figure 8 answers this question by showing the relationship between annual variable costs, and the value of LNG. The graph shows differences to the steam mechanical
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machinery, which is represented by the x-axis, and calculation is based on HFO price of 114 USD/tonne.
Figure 8 Recurring annual variable cost, versus the value of LNG, presented as difference to the steam-mechanical machinery The diesel-electrical machinery maintains its advantage over steam turbine at all LNG values. When LNG is valued below 125 USD/tonne, or 110% of HFO per tonne price, diesel-electrical machinery becomes less economical. Below this price it is more economical to burn LNG, rather than HFO. Unfortunately dieselelectrical machinerys LNG input can not be increased beyond the installed capacity of its gas burning engines. Steam turbine can be operated entirely on LNG, if need be, and will thus be more competitive in low LNG values. Gas turbine machinery, which can utilise HFO as its liquid fuel, behaves much the same way as the diesel-electrical machinery. Below LNG value of 125 USD/tonne, or 110% of HFO price, the back-up HFO is no longer fed into the gas turbine, but replaced with additional forced boil-off. This improves its economics a little bit in lower LNG values, but there will still be a HFOburning booster diesel engine, which can not use LNG. The MGO-burning gas turbine has to force additional boil-off constantly. This machinerys optimum operating point is thus at 125 USD/tonne, or 110% of HFO price, since higher LNG prices do not favour boil-off forcing. This machinery finally loses its advantage over steam turbine at break-even LNG value of 175 USD/tonne, or 155% of HFO price. As one could expect, re-liquefying is good business, if LNG is valued high. Break-even LNG value with respect to steam turbine is at 120 USD/tonne, or 105% of HFO price. Re-liquefying becomes the most economical option beyond LNG value of 155 USD/tonne, or 135% of HFO price.
9.4.4 Price of HFO

And what happens, if bunker price changes? Actually, it is only relevant, what is the value of LNG in relation to the price of HFO. This is what determines, if it is
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more economical to burn HFO or LNG. Figure 8 has been calculated with a HFO price of 114 USD/tonne, but the results could as well be presented in a more universal scale of LNG/HFO price ratio. Additionally, when the one-time investment costs are amortized to the ships expected economic lifetime, recurring annual variable costs can be added to it. Figure 9 presents these results, applying 20 years and an 8% cost of capital to amortize.
Figure 9 Total annual cost, versus the ratio of LNG value and HFO price, presented as difference to the steam-mechanical machinery These results, presented in Figure 8 and in Figure 9, have been arrived to by assuming, that all the fuel flexibility, which is available in a machinery, is utilised to its maximum extent.
9.4.5 Membrane or Moss?

LNG ships are usually divided into two subtypes, according to their cargo containment system. Ships having their cargo contained in Technigaz or Gaz Transport systems, are commonly referred to as membrane-type tankers, whereas ships with their cargo carried in large, spherical tanks, are referred to as Moss-type tankers. Ships of the two subtypes are distinctly different from one another. Moss-type ships enclose a larger volume due to their main-deckpenetrating spherical tanks. Moss-type ships have also wider beam, than their membrane-type counterparts. Despite these differences, all results presented in this paper are equally applicable to ships of both subtypes. Having said this, there are still some differences between the subtypes. Moss-type ships have wide beams, their cargo contained in spherical tanks, and typically quite spacious engine rooms. In these Moss-type ships a more compact machinery does not enable any reductions in main dimensions, nor any increase in cargo volume. In an membrane-type ship, on the other hand, a more compact engine room would enable an increase in cargo space, or, alternatively, a reduction in main
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dimensions. Quite compact all-aft engine room can be achieved with electrical podded propulsors. These propulsors of course require the ship to have an electricity producing main machinery.
9.4.6 Single or twin propulsor?

One of the acknowledged benefits of a twin screw design is its improved redundancy. Diesel-electric and COGES machineries, as well as the dieselmechanical re-liquefying machinery, can all be easily built as either single or twin propulsor ships. If the steam-mechanical ship would be built twin screw, it would be much more costly. In practice twin screw steam-mechanical ship is really not feasible.
9.5
Shipyard Premium
So far all LNG carriers have been delivered with a single screw steammechanical propulsion. All the novel alternatives, discussed in this paper, are thus prototypes from the yards point of view. As steam turbine is the default design, it is likely, that shipyards will add premium to any novel LNG tankers price. The calculated investment cost difference, presented earlier in this paper, is thus different, than the actual ships price difference, which can only be indicated by yards. Part of the premium should be viewed as an uncertainty guarantee. This part indicates, how much the yard thinks its risks increase, should it be contracted to build a prototype with a new power plant concept. One could expect, that re-liquefaction plants, and gas turbines, will probably carry the highest risk premiums. Medium speed diesel technology, even if fuelled by low pressure gas, is perhaps the least unknown technology for most LNG carrier building shipyards. Another part of premium is due to the loss of serial ship effect. When ships are built in series, benefits of learning, repeatability, and, one could say, kind of mass production, are beginning to emerge. Established LNG ship building yards in the Far East have built, and are in the process of building LNG ships in series. For such yards the serial ship effect premium, and the threshold to choose a novel machinery, might be higher, than for the yards, which are yet less established in the LNG market. Shipyard premium might, all in all, become big enough an obstacle for novel machineries to enter the market. What could a supplier of such a novel technology do, so that the shipyard would reduce its premium? There might not be much, a supplier can do about the serial ship effect, but risk premium is something, a supplier could reduce. One answer would be for the technology supplier to carry a part of the risk. This could be arranged through the delivery of a complete power and/or propulsion package. The more tasks and responsibilities the supplier is willing to take care of in the building phase, the less risk there is associated for the yard to carry. Such a package could help persuade the yard to select a novel machinery. In the same context, the supplier could also offer something extra for the owner. If the supplier is contracted to deliver a machinery package, and if it is also willing to take responsibility over it, supplier could as well offer up-time guarantees, for example. Such a package,
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offering benefits for both the owner and the yard, could significantly help penetration of new machineries into the LNG market.
9.6 Conclusion
So far nothing has been able to beat steam turbines in LNG carriers. Lately, as technology has advanced, alternative and promising methods of handling boil-off gas have emerged. More specifically, there are three alternative technologies to power the tomorrows LNG carriers. These are gas burning low pressure diesels, gas turbines in combined cycle, and re-liquefaction of boil-off. All of these novel technologies appear to offer economical benefits for the owner. Initial investment costs of these three machineries are lower, and all of their annual costs are smaller, given the right boundary conditions. All the novel machineries can be built to have higher redundancy, than what is feasible with steam turbine. These novel machineries can also be equally well applied onboard both the membraneand Moss-type LNG carriers. Also the length of the operating route does not appear to be an issue in machinery selection. However, attention must be paid to correct identification of the prevailing boundary conditions. Re-liquefaction technology is sensitive to rise in bunker price, and especially to reduction in value of LNG. Re-liquefaction technology probably has the highest economical risks associated with it, but it is also capable to offer the highest returns. If it is the LNG consumer, who owns the cargo during transit, re-liquefaction emerges as a very prominent solution. Quite contrary to re-liquefaction, the MGO-burning gas turbines are sensitive to a high LNG price. This machinery is, over a wide range of LNG and HFO prices, more economical than the steam turbine machinery. However, it appears to lose constantly to the HFO-burning gas turbine, as well as to the diesel-electrical machinery. For LNG projects, where it is the gas producer, who is responsible for transportation, MGO-burning gas turbines however do provide a good solution. HFO-burning gas turbines and diesel-electrical machineries have rather similar operating economics. They both beat steam turbine over the entire range of varying boundary conditions, and are able to offer quite constant and secure economical benefit for the operator. These machineries both thus pose the smallest economical risks with quite certain returns. Both of these novel machineries can be considered as rather safe options for the operator. Shipyard premiums are an issue, which might impede penetration of these novel technologies. Here a supplier could ease the selection by offering the shipyard a complete packaged delivery.
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CHAPTER 10
TECHNICAL COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT PROPULSION TYPES

Comparision between steam & diesel propulsion:-
Size of LNG Carrier and Boil-Off Gas rates
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Voyage profile
Basic Data for Economical Comparison
Power Consumption
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Operation Costs at Loaded Conditions
Operation Costs at Ballast Conditions
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Annual operation costs and value of lost LNG (Fuel oil as add-up energy) The benefit of diesel engine propulsion of LNG carriers is calculated to be above. US$ 3.5 million per vessel per year. Especially the LNG selling price has a positive impact on the advantage of diesel engine propulsion. The benefit gained in operating costs and the additional income from the sale of LNG by diesel engine propulsion and reliquefaction will, in all cases, be sufficient to justify even large differences in investment costs, if such are called for at all. Basically, diesel propulsion offers a CO2 emission reduction of about 30% compared to the steam plant.
10.1 Comparision between steam, diesel & diesel-electricA state-of-the-art 145,000 m3 LNG carrier, with main particulars as shown in figure 4. was used as the basis for the technical and economical evaluation. Figure 3 and tables 1 and 2 show the predicted power requirements, efficiency figures and initial costs of the different propulsion options.
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The difference in needed power is merely due to different efficiency losses between the propeller and the engine or turbine. Since the diesel-electric version is producing electrical power, the loss of efficiency is greater than for the mechanically driven propeller.
Figure 3: Predicted Brake Power Requirements
Table 1: Comparison of Propulsion Efficiency
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Table 2: Preliminary comparison of initial costs Figure shows the different cargo capacities which can be achieved with the various propulsion alternatives, while maintaining the same main ship particulars.
Principal Particulars: Length over all: abt. 280,00 m Length between perpendiculars: 268,00 m Breath moulded: 43,20 m Depth to maindeck: 26,10 m Cargo* (100% - Steam): abt. 145.500 m Cargo* (100% - Diesel mechanical): abt. 149.000 m Cargo* (100% - Diesel Electric): abt. 150.500 m Gross Tonnage: abt. 95.500 Draught (steam / diesel electric): 11,95 m Corresp. Deadweight all told: abt. 72.700 t Draught (Diesel mechanical): 12.1 m Corresp. Deadweight all told: abt. 74.300 t Speed at design draught: abt. 19.50 kn *) cargo capacity based on CS1 system for 0.15% BOR
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Figure 4: Principle particulars for a 145,000 cbm LNG carrier
10.2 ECONOMICAL COMPARISON PROPULSION SYSTEMS
OF
THE
DIFFERENT
Five propulsion alternatives were evaluated. Although the alternatives allow different cargo capacities due to variations in the engine room space demand, all options were calculated with a cargo capacity of 145,000 m. Including the different cargo capacities would lead to an unrealistic comparison of the options to increased payload. In reality, a ship with a lesser capacity could be lengthened for a marginal price increase in order to achieve a cargo capacity equal to those designs with smaller engine room space demands. The following options were compared: Benchmark ship: steam propulsion using natural BOG and HFO for propulsion Slow speed diesel with BOG reliquefaction Diesel-electric completely fired by LNG (natural BOG and forced BOG) Diesel-electric fired by natural BOG and additional MDO Diesel-electric HFO fired with BOG reliquefaction
The options were calculated for 3 different trades: Arabian Gulf to Boston 345 sea days, 20 port days, 36 sailing days Trans-Atlantic 328 sea days, 37 port days, 18 sailing days Trans-Caribbean 279 sea days, 86 port days, 6,5 sailing days The economic assumptions are as follows: Benchmark ship contract price: 165 M US $ 121
The costs for different propulsion systems as shown earlier were taken into account Financing over 20 years at 7,5% interest rate BOG-reliquefaction system (redundant) 6 M US $ extra investment and 3,500 kW extra power Additional maintenance / lubrication cost for DE and slow speed diesel considered The costs difference of the various propulsions systems as shown in table 2 were accounted for. Further economic basis were: Efficiencies: Steam: 0.30 Diesel-electric: 0.41 (0.43*) 2-stroke-Diesel: 0.48 Fuel Price: HFO: 135 USD/t MDO: 210 USD/t LNG (FOB) 104 USD/t (2USD/mmbtu) LNG (CIF) 156 USD/t (3USD/mmbtu) Lower heating values: HFO: 40,4 MJ/kg MDO: 41,8 MJ/kg LNG: 49,2 MJ/kg *) in gas mode The fuel prices used are initial values. In order to consider increasing future fuel prices we assumed that the HFO and MDO prices increase in linear fashion to the LNG CIF price. The LNG FOB price was assumed to increase by only 50% of the CIF price increase.
10.3 RESULTS
Figure shows fuel costs as a percentage compared to the benchmark ship, which represents 100%. The fuel costs are shown for current fuel prices for the Gulf to Boston trade. Although the slow speed diesel with BOG reliquefaction has the best efficiency, it is evident from the graph that the propulsion options burning LNG have greater cost savings. The higher heat values and lower fuel prices of the LNG overcompensate the slightly lower efficiency.
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Figure 5: Fuel cost comparison The net revenue in M USD/year for increasing LNG prices is shown in figures 6 to 8 for the different trade scenarios. The X-axis, or zero (0) revenue presents the benchmark ship. It is clear that all options achieve considerable revenue with increased benefits for rising LNG prices. Longer trades also allow higher savings. At current LNG and fuel prices the max. achievable annual revenue benefit for the Gulf to Boston trade totals abt. 2.8 MUSD for the slow speed diesel with BOG as well as for the diesel electric version utilising only LNG as fuel. One remarkable result is that the benefits can still be achieved with the diesel electric version firing HFO, considering the lower heat value & higher price of HFO as well as the additional investment and power consumption of the reliquefaction plant. This result demonstrates that a reliquefaction plant can be a viable option even for the diesel electric version, not only if HFO is the fuel, but also for dual fuel engines burning LNG, especially when involved in the spot cargo trade. The spot market will make it essential for vessels to be flexible and to operate efficiently at varying speeds which will be encountered on different routes.
Figure 6: Net Revenue Benefits (Gulf to Boston)
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Figure 7: Net Revenue Benefits (Trans-Atlantic)
Figure 8: Net Revenue Benefits (Trans-Carribean) Figure 9 gives an example for the viability of the reliquefaction system. The curve shows the LNG consumption for the diesel-electric version for the given speed. The boil-off-rate is more or less constant at 0.15% /day which are about 100mt/day for a 142,000 m ship. The shaded area above the curve indicates excessive boil off. If, for example, the ship was on a trade where it has to sail at only 18.0 knots, then 25 t of excessive boil off would be lost every day without a reliquefaction plant. The slower the sailing speed the more beneficial a reliquefaction plant can become. Additionally a reliquefaction plant makes the ship more flexible regarding the choice of fuel in the future in the case of non linear fuel price increases.
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Figure 9: Example for BOG reliquefaction viability
10.4 CONCLUSIONS
Steam turbine installations have dominated LNG carrier propulsion and electric power generation for decades because no suitable alternatives were available. With the market introduction of low-pressure, four-stroke dualfuel engines came the chance to challenge the steam turbine dominance. Dual-fuel engines in combination with an electric drive have turned out to be the most attractive alternative to the traditional steam turbine installation, especially in terms of operating economy and environmental friendliness. The first dual-fuel-electric LNG carrier is about to enter commercial operation, a second vessel is on the building blocks, and a third ship is in the order book. More orders for dual-fuelelectric LNG carriers are imminent. The evaluation has shown that there are clear arguments to move forward from steam propulsion for LNG ships. The slow speed diesel and the dual fuel dieselelectric are equivalent in terms of economic benefits. However the diesel-electric version allows a higher redundancy, increased flexibility as well as greater cargo capacity. A diesel-electric ship fitted with a reliquefaction plant seems to be the most promising solution for current and future demands to LNG carrier propulsion, especially considering the reduced emissions of NOx, SOx and CO2 and future trading and fuel choice flexibility.
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10.5 Comparison
In order to show the true revenue making potential of gas turbine driven LNGC alternatives, they have to be compared with the current state-of-the-art conventional LNGC. First of all, on the basis of many contact with the LNG shipping community the most likely LNGC configuration was selected on the basis of technological merits. Initially, calculations showed the gas turbine electric podded drive LNGC to have the best revenue making capacity, with its high cargo capacity and highly efficient propulsion system. However, in the light of recent events involving podded drive failures, it seems that the reliability of these systems does not yet comply with the requirements of the LNG shipping industry. The next best alternative, the gas turbine mechanical drive LNGC offers unsurpassed thermal efficiency and high cargo capacity. However, the durability of the reduction gear, clutches and reversing gear for the FPP in commercial marine application is as yet unknown. Some owners have voiced objections to an alternative equipped with a CPP, citing its slightly lower propulsion efficiency. The gas turbine electric drive LNGC combines excellent thermal efficiency and high cargo capacity, paired with the use of proven technology in the power train. Electric drive systems have gained some acceptance within the LNG shipping community, as illustrated by the order for one 74,000 cubic meter diesel-electric drive LNGC at Chantiers de l'Atlantique last year. Reliability, redundancy and revenue are the key words to this propulsion alternative. To check the economic viability of the gas turbine electric drive LNGC, a cost calculation model has been designed using a range of input parameters to calculate long run economic performance under differing circumstances and on different trading routes. Three LNG trades are simulated; the short trade (Algeria - France), the medium trade (Trinidad - Spain) and the long trade (Qatar Korea/Japan). Two different liquid fuel price levels, representing the extremes of the last ten years, have been used to check the survivability of the gas turbine drive alternatives in changing economic circumstances. Six different aero-derivative gas turbines configuration have been selected to take part in the comparison, making this study the first full-scale performance comparison of all major aero-derivative gas turbine makes for commercial marine propulsion.
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127
128
Three alternative fuel schedules have been used in this comparison: Round Trip BOG + LF: the natural BOG is supplemented with liquid fuel on both the loaded and the ballast trip. The conventional LNGC burns BOG and HFO 380, while the gas turbine electric drive LNGC burns BOG and MGO; Round trip BOG + FVG: on both the loaded voyage and the ballast voyage the full energy needs are covered by the available natural BOG, supplemented with Forced Vaporized Gas (FVG); Loaded BOG + LF Ballast LF: on the loaded voyage the energy requirements are covered by the available BOG, supplemented with liquid fuel. On the ballast voyage only liquid fuel is used. The results are presented in the diagrams below: Long itinerary: High (left) v/s Low (right) Liquid Fuel Prices
129
Medium Itinerary: High (left) v/s Low (right) Liquid Fuel Prices
130
131
Short Itinerary:High (left) v/s Low (right) Liquid Fuel Prices
132
There are a number of preliminary conclusion to be drawn: First of all, the cargo quantities delivered by all gas turbine driven LNGCs are substantially higher than that of the conventional LNGC, which translates in additional income; Quite surprisingly, high liquid fuel prices are actually favourable for the gas turbine propulsion system. The explanation is that the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine based propulsion plants is so high that the effects of high liquid fuel prices on the total operating cost are much less than for the steam turbine powered conventional LNGC. On the loaded voyage, the gas turbine driven LNGC hardly needs any liquid fuel, while the conventional LNGC relies on liquid fuel for about 40% of its total energy requirements; On shorters trades, the effects of an increase in cargo capacity are more pronounced than on longer trades. On the short trade, a gas turbine electric driven LNGC transports the equivalent of 9.6 conventional LNGC cargoes extra per year, against 1.7 extra cargoes on the long trade. The additional revenue from this additional cargo improves return on investment significantly, which in turn makes it easier to finance such a newbuilding project; Even on long trades, with low liquid fuel prices, the gas turbine driven LNGC still generates over USD. 110M in additional revenue over a 20 year period, even whenthe ballast voyage has to be made on liquid fuel only. This worst case scenario clearly illustrates that gas turbine driven LNGCs provide a safe and steady stream of additional revenue even under the "worst" of circumstances; Gas turbine powered LNGCs are flexible and profitable under all circumstances. Switching between long and short charters does influence the overall rate of 133
return on investment, but it will always be substantially higher than the ROI of conventional LNGCs. Fuel costs for long ballast voyages on liquid fuel only are indeed higher than those of conventional LNGCs, but much lower fuel cost for the loaded voyage more than compensate this disadvantage. This makes the gas turbine powered LNGC also suitable for the carriage of spot cargoes, which sometimes requires longer ballast voyages without heel; The gas turbines GT1, GT2, GT3 and GT6 show almost identical performance, which brings increased competition to LNGC propulsion market, currently dominated by two Japanese steam turbine manufacturers. The resulting effect on the general price level for LNGC newbuildings can be very beneficial for owners considering fleet extentions or renewal. Additional calculations show that, under certain circumstances, it is economically feasible to re-engine a conventional LNGC with a gas turbine electric drive power plant incorporating gas turbine types GT1, GT2, GT3 or GT6, even if the cargo capacity is not increased. However, the conversion should take place early in the charter for the conversion to be profitable and the vessel will not have the same flexibility and high ROI as LNGCs especially designed to exploit the benefits of gas turbine propulsion to the maximum.
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REFERENCES:1. Ole Grne: ME engines the New Generation of Diesel engines, Motorship Conference, Hamburg, 2003 2. T. Fukuda, M. Ohtsu, M. Hanafusa, P. S. Pedersen,, O. Grne, O. Schnohr: Development of the Worlds First Large-Bore Gas-Injection Engine, CIMAC 1995 3. Peter Skjoldager, Tore Lunde & Eirik Melaaen: Two-stroke DieselEngines and Reliquefaction Systems for LNG Carriers, Motorship Conference, Hamburg, 2003 4. Official site of HANSA MARITIME INTERNATIONAL. 5. Official site of MAN-B&W MC-C ENGINE. 6. Official site of MAN-B&W ME-C ENGINE. 7. Official site of MAN-B&W ME-GI ENGINE. 8. MER(I) JOURNAL ISSUE,MARCH 2004. 9. MER(I) JOURNAL ISSUE,JULY 2004. 10. MARINE LOG .COM. 11. TUB.COM. 12. Fuel Cells Start to Look Real, Automotive Engineering International, Vol. 109, No. 3, March 2001. 13. Future Wheels, Northeast Advanced Vehicle Consortium, November 2000. 14. Future U.S. Highway Energy Use: A Fifty Year Perspective, DOE Office of Transportation Technologies, February 2001. 15. Evaluation of Fuel Cell Reformer Emissions, Unnasch et al., ARB Contract 95-313 Final Report, August 1999.
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16. Cost Analysis of Fuel Cell System for Transportation Pathways to Low Cost, Thijssen et al., Presentation to DOE, August 2001. 17. Comparing the Benefits and Impacts of Hybrid Electric Vehicle Options, Browning et al., EPRI Technical Report 1000349, July 2001. 18. Fuel Cell Handbook on CD (4th Edition), U.S. Department of Energy, Office of fossil Energy, Federal Energy Technology Center. November 1998. 19. C.E. (Sandy) Thomas, et.al. Integrated Analysis of Hydrogen Passenger Vehicle Transportation Pathways. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, March, 1998. 20. Shimshon Gottesfeld. Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells. Advances in Electrochemical Science and Engineering, Vol.5, Wiley-VCH, 1997. 21. Fritz R. Kalhammer, et. al. Status and Prospects of Fuel Cells as Automotive engines. Prepared for the State of California Air Resources Board, July, 1998. 22. For Government and Commercial Applications. http://www.lerc.nasa.gov/ www/RT1995/5000/ 5420p. 23. Solar-Powered Plane Flies to New Record Height One Step Closer to a Commercial Satellite Substitute. http:// www.aerovironment.com 24. A.J. Appleby and F.R. Foulkes. Fuel Cell Handbook. Van Norstand Reinhold, New York: 1989. 25. S.R. Narayanan, G. Halpert, et.al. The Status of Direct Methanol Fuel Cells at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Proceedings of the 37th Annual Power Source Symposium, Cherry Hill, N.J., June 17, 1996.
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FUTURE OF LNG TRANSPORTATION:VARIOUS PROPULSION ALTERNATIVES

Kumar Surendra Prasad

CHAPTER: 1 LIQUIFIED NATURAL GAS

CHAPTER: 2 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

2.3.2.4 The Shape Of Things To Come:2.3.2.5 To Boil Off ... Or Not?

CHAPTER 3 TRADITIONAL STEAM PROPULSION

CHAPTER 4 SLOW SPEED DIESEL ENGINES

CHAPTER 5 DUAL FUEL DIESEL-ELECTRIC PROP.

GAS TURBINE ALTERNATIVES

GAS TURBINE ELECTRIC DRIVE

7.8 INCREASING LNG CARRIER CARGO CAPACITY

CHAPTER 8 RELIQUIFICATION TECHNOLOGY

LIQUIFIED NATURAL GAS

2.1.4 Pipeline Inspection and Safety:-

2.2.5 CNG vs. LNG

2.3.1 Conventional LNG Carrier

2.3.2 The Basic Ship Structure:-

2.3.2.5 To Boil Off ... Or Not?

3.2.1 Operating Economy

SLOW SPEED DIESEL ENGINE

Figure 1: Diagram of Diesel engine with Reliquefaction

M/V Excalibur LNG Carriers

The ME-GI Engine

Operating costs for LNG carriers

Emissions for the solutions compared

Fig. 25: Exhaust Valve Closing Time

Fig. 32: 7S50ME-C 75% load

4.2.6 Reduced Fuel Consumption

4.2.7 Operational Safety & Flexibility

4.2.8 Flexibilty Regarding Exhaust Gas Emission

DUAL FUEL DIESEL-ELECTRIC PROPULSION

Electric propulsion system for LNG carriers

5.2 CRP AZIPOD PROPULSION - High-Efficiency Contra-Rotating Propulsion System

GAS TURBINE ALTERNATIVES

6.2 Advantages of Marine Aero-derivative Gas Turbines:6.2.1 Operation:

6.2.3 Reliability and availability:

6.2.5 Noise and vibration:

6.2.6 Vessel design:

6.2.7 Propulsion plant design:

6.3 Disadvantages of Marine Aero-derivative Gas Turbines:6.3.1 Thermal efficiency:

6.3.2 Liquid fuel quality restrictions:]

6.3.3 Initial investments:

6.4 Gas Turbine Myths and Misunderstandings

6.5 Marine Gas Turbine Applications

GAS TURBINE ELECTRIC DRIVE LNG CARRIER

7.1 Gas turbine electric drive combine cycle propulsion

7.2 The advantages are:

7.3 The disadvantage are:

7.4 Normal cruising speed:

7.5 Gas Turbine Electric Podded Drive LNG Carrier

7.6 Gas turbine electric drive combine cycle propulsion

7.6.1 The advantages are:

7.6.2 The disadvantage are:

7.7 Normal cruising speed:

7.8 Increasing LNG Carrier Cargo Capacity

Standard Moss RS reliquefaction system

VOYAGE- ANALYSIS & PERFORMANCE

9.2 ONE-TIME INVESTMENT COSTS

RECURRING VARIABLE COSTS

9.4 WHAT AFFECTS THE VARIABLE COSTS?

9.4.1 Operating route

9.4.2 Fuel flexibility

9.4.3 Value of LNG