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T'ANG DYNASTY The Tang Dynasty was formed in 618 due to the failed exhibitions to Korea by the Sui,

which had led to conflicts in the north of China. The T'ang's founder, Li Yuan was a rebel from an aristocratic family (traced from the Han) that was influential under the Northern Zhou. The T'ang took some time to become established, in part due to a rebellion in 617 that took several years to succeed with the help of the Turks. The Tang administration had continued to use the Sui's form of governing, including the revival of 'equal field system as part of its taxation system. This was achieved by providing land to families, and each person in that family would then be responsible for paying tax. This system was of taxation in effect became the method of maintaining a more accurate census. Also, Li Yuan was credited for expanding the government system to include a new currency. In 626, one of Li Yuan's sons, Li Shih-min (Tiazong) took the throne when the Emperor learned that there was a plot to murder him by his other sons. Li Yuan abdicated in favor of favored son, to live his remaining years as 'Retired Emperor'. As the Tang grew stronger, they sought to extend their borders and push back the groups who made incursions into their territories. Under Gaozong's leadership, the Tang eventually expanded its occupation through Transoxania, encompassing most of central Asia all the way into Iran and Manchuria by 665. Additionally, by 676, the T'ang succeeded to occupy Korea, including Koguryo. These occupations resulted in the Tang's hegemonic influence throughout Asia. In 690, the T'ang's only female Empress, Wu Zhao usurped the throne. She began by asserting her influence under the rule of Gaozong, Taizong's heir. Whie Gaozong was ill, she became de facto ruler, and even after Gaozong's death in 683, one of his sons, Chung Tsung had inherited the throne, but power still remained under the empress. Chung Tsung was overthrown and exiled by Wu Zhao, who in 689 became the founder of the The Zhou (a continuation -or- disruption of the T'ang), which lasted 15 years. She cultivating an aura of majesty, and declared herself Holy and Divine Emperor. During what was described in history books as Wu's reign of

terror, she did however open up the examination system, to allow for more civil servants and ministers, thereby degrading a system to be filled by eunuchs, peasants, and the like, all under her control. During this period, Buddhism took precedence over the Daoist and Confucius schools. With the secret support of the Buddhist clergy to support her rein, she ordained over 1000 monks, raised some monks to dukedom (and took a monk as a lover). Wu Zhao's rule was followed by a Tang restoration by 710 and golden age which lasted until 755. The restoration of its armies, government, trade, and taxing took hold. Poetry became very popular, and while few new forms of poetry were developed, the existing forms of poetry were brought to perfection, forging entertainment through opera and other theatrical productions. Poems or theatre displays were typically heard in tea houses. To increase its revenue, the T'ang monopolized tea in the region, providing so-called Tea houses that became commonplace throughout China. Other items that were monopolized were salt and alcohol. Of the three monopolies, the salt monopoly was the most profitable. It is important to note that The prosperity of the T'ang came through improved transport on the canals built under the Sui Dynasty, providing a stronger trade relationship with foreign suppliers and buyers. Another monopoly on rice produced increased revenue, resulting in population centers that began to shift to the lower Yangtze basin. Also, jade, unglazed pottery horses, and glass beads, and other commodities that were traded/bartered, further strengthened the T'ang's financial chest. Toward the end of the 9th Century, civil war erupted and the peasants were gaining a stronghold throughout China, some of which were successful. However, with so much unrest, by the time Emperor Chaohsuan Ti attempted to gain control in 904, the Tartar tribes breached China's borders, establishing their own dynasties, creating a period better known as the Civil War of the Five Dynasties.
http://www.dynastiesofasia.com/asian-history-references/t'ang-dynasty-period-in-chinesehistory.htm

tng, dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907. It was founded by Li Yuan and his son Li Shih-min, with the aid of Turkish allies. The early strength of the T'ang was built directly upon the excellent system of communications and administration established by the Sui. At first the neighboring peoples, nomadic and civilized, were held in check, and by the mid-7th cent. the T'ang occupied or controlled large portions of Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, and Turkistan. During the T'ang China was open to foreign ideas and developed trade with neighboring countries and Central Asia. While the introduction of foreign music and dances enriched the T'ang culture, the Chinese Confucian culture and administrative system had profound influence in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Sculpture flourished (T'ang horses are especially noted) and the painting (of which few examples have survived) is considered superior. In literature poetry was the most highly developed form; Li Po (70162), Tu Fu (71270), and Po Chu-I (772846) were the most distinguished poets. The classics of Confucianism were closely studied and provided the basis for the civil-service examinations that were to assume great importance later (seeChinese examination system). Although religious toleration was usually practiced, foreign cults were sometimes proscribed; Buddhism was suppressed in the Hu-chiang period, and many Buddhist monasteries were dissolved, at great profit to the state treasury. The high-water mark of territorial expansion and political unity was reached during the reign of Emperor Hsuan Tsung (71256). Defeat by the Arabs at the Talas River in W Turkistan (751) checked T'ang ambitions in the west, and the costly struggle against the An Lu-shan rebellion (75563) finally exhausted the empire. Warlord governors turned many provinces into autonomous personal domains. The vigor of the early T'ang administration quickly declined, and control over border regions was lost, especially to the Uigurs, who became dominant in Mongolia. In the 9th cent. local maladministration became widespread, and revolts broke out in the south and in Tibet. After the T'ang collapse there was great disorder until the establishment of the Sung dynasty in 960. See E. G. Pulleyblank, The Background of the Rebellion of An Lushan (1955); E. O. Reischauer, Ennin's Travels in T'ang China (1955); A. F. Wright and P. C. Twitchett, ed., Perspectives on the T'ang (1973); D. Twitchett, The Cambridge History of China (Vol. 3, 1979); H. J. Wechsler, Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and Symbol in the Legitimation of the T'ang Dynasty (1985); C. Hartman, Han Yu and the T'ang Search for Unity (1986). ____________________ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright 2004, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Lernout & Hauspie Speech Products N.V. All rights reserved.

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THE HAN DYNASTY


How far can a youth-culture idol tweak Chinas establishment?
by Evan OsnosJULY 4, 2011

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Han Han; Writers; Novelists;

Bloggers; Race-Car Drivers; China, Chinese; Lu Jinbo

ABSTRACT: LETTER FROM CHINA about novelist, essayist, blogger, and race-car driver Han Han. In the global canon of teenangst literature, Hans debut novel, Triple Door was tame, but in China it was unprecedented: a scathingly realistic satire of education and authority, written by a nobody. Triple Door, published in 2000, went on to sell more than two million copies, putting it among Chinas best-selling novels of the past two decades. In the next several years, Han published four more novels and several essay collections faithful to his subjects: teen-agers, girls, and cars. They have sold millions more, though his publisher, Lu Jinbo, does not hail them as great literature. Five years ago, Han started blogging, and his focus took an unmistakable turn toward some of Chinas most sensitive matters: Party corruption, censorship, the exploitation of young workers, pollution, the gap between the rich and the poor. Han proved even more successful online than in print. In 2008, he surpassed a movie star to become Chinas most popular personal blogger. On the spectrum of Chinese dissent, Han holds a commanding but highly ambiguous position. At times, his is one of Chinas most outspoken voices. He can also be calculatingly elliptical. For nearly a decade, Han Han has maintained a parallel career as a race-car driver, with a respectable record in circuit

competition for Shanghais Volkswagen team and in off-road rally races for Subaru. By and large, his readers care nothing for auto racing, but the overlapping identities have yielded a singular celebrity. Unlike other prominent Chinese critics of the government, he has few ties to the West; he has visited Europe but not America, and cares little for Western literature. He is still acclimating to attention from abroad. Tells about Hans parents. His mother, Zhou Qiaorong, dispensed benefits at a local welfare office; his father, Han Renjun, had aspirations to write fiction, but ended up at a local Party newspaper. Tells about the magazine, Party, which Han briefly put out before his publisher was ordered to stop. The instruction came by phone from the relevant departments, Han said. He saw the end of the magazine as a function of its success. Discusses Hans comments on Chinas response to the unrest in the Middle East. Tells about criticism of Han by other young Chinese liberals. Han permits few illusions about his willingness to stay on the safe side of lines he can see. He has never made a move to take his activism from the Web to the street, and he opposes hastening multiparty elections. Describes Hans performance in a touring-car race at the Shanghai Tianma Circuit.

Evan Osnos, Profiles, The Han Dynasty, The New Yorker, July 4, 2011, p. 50

Read more http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/07/04/110704fa_fact_osno s#ixzz1wE8dilSf

hn, dynasty of China that ruled from 202 b.c. to a.d. 220. Liu Pang, the first Han emperor, had been a farmer, minor village official, and guerrilla fighter under the Ch'in dynasty. During the period of civil strife that followed the fall of the Ch'in, he advanced from the Huai River valley, defeated his rivals for the throne, and then established himself in Chang'an (see Xi'an) near the old Ch'in capital. Under Liu Pang and the succeeding Han emperors the task of unification begun by the Ch'in was carried further. However, the harsh laws of the Ch'in were repealed, taxes were lightened, the absolute autocracy of the emperor was lessened, and, most importantly, Confucianism was made the basis of the state. The pyramidal bureaucracy of Ch'in administration was retained, and the Han period saw the beginnings of one of the distinguishing features of the Chinese educational and state system, the recruiting of members of the bureaucracy through civil service examinations. The dynasty attained its greatest territorial expanse under the emperor Wu Ti (reigned 140 b.c.87 b.c.), who extended Han power W to Xinjiang and Central Asia, N to Manchuria and Korea, and S to Yunnan, Hainan island, and Vietnam. One of China's greatest historians, Ssu-ma Ch'ien, flourished during the reign of Wu Ti. The Han emperors ruled for 400 years with one interruption; in a.d. 8 an agrarian reformer usurped the throne and established the Hsin dynasty. This short-lived dynasty has come to mark the division between the Early, or Western, Han period and the Later, or Eastern, Han period, which began a.d. 25, when the Han capital was moved east to Luoyang. The entire Han era was one of political and cultural centralization and expansion. The writing brush and paper and ink came into wide use and the manufacture of porcelain had its beginnings in this period. Many classic texts were edited, and the first dictionary was compiled. The coming of Buddhism increased cultural ties with India and parts of the Middle East. Trade with border states was increased to pacify these regions and to gain their allegiance. The dynasty collapsed c.a.d. 220 and was followed by some 350 years of smaller political units, including the Three Kingdoms and the Tsin dynasty. China was eventually reunited under the Sui dynasty. See P. Ku, The History of the Former Han Dynasty (tr., 3 vol., 193855); Ssu-ma Ch'ien, Records of the Grand Historian of China (tr., 2 vol., 1961); M. Loewe,Everyday Life in Early Imperial China (1968); J. Gernet, Ancient China from the Beginnings to the Empire (tr. 1968); Tung-hsi Ch'u, Han Social Structure (1972). ____________________ The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition Copyright 2004, Columbia University Press. Licensed from Lernout & Hauspie Speech Products N.V. All rights reserved.

Zhou Yu (Gongjin)

()
(AD 175-210)
Sanguozhi Officer Biography translated by Battleroyale

Zhou Yu styled Gongjin, hailed from Shu (name of a place) in Lu Jiang prefecture. Two of Zhou Yus ancestors, Zhou Jing and Zhou Zhong held the position of Tai Wei in the Han dynasty and Zhou Yus father was once the magistrate of Luo Yang. Zhou Yu grew up to be a handsome lad. In the beginning when Sun Jian was raising an army to attack Dong Zhuo, he moved his family to the Shu prefecture (where Zhou Yu resided). Zhou Yu and Sun Ce were of the same age and they were on very amicable terms. Zhou Yu invited Sun Ce to stay in his mansion and paid his respects to Sun Ces mother. Zhou Yus uncle, Zhou Shang, was the Grand Administrator of Dan Yang. Soon after, when Zhou Yu was visiting his uncle, Sun Ce was coincidentally leading his armies eastward crossing the Yang Tze river and reached Li Yang. Sun Ce sent a letter to Zhou Yu who on receiving it led some troops to meet Sun Ce. Sun Ce was overjoyed to have Zhou Yu joining his forces. Subsequently, both of them managed to capture Heng Jiang and Dang Li and they crossed the river to attack Mo Ling. There, they defeated the defenders, Ze Rong, Xue Li and proceeded south to Hu Shu and Jiang Cheng. Subsequently they entered Qu Ah, forcing Liu Yao to retreat. At this time, Sun Ces army numbered several tens of thousands soldiers. With this army, Sun Ce felt that he could conquer the prefectures of Wu and Hui Ji, and subdued the Shan Yue tribes. As such, he told Zhou Yu to return and defend Dan Yang. Not long after, Yuan Shu ordered his cousin, Yuan Yin, to replace Zhou Shang as the Grand Administrator of Dan Yang. Zhou Shang, together with Zhou Yu, returned to Shou Chun. At that time, Yuan Shu contemplated on employing Zhou Yu but Zhou Yu

felt that he could not achieve much by working under Yuan Shu. As such, Zhou Yu requested Yuan Shu to appoint him as the magistrate of Ju Jiao, which would give him the opportunity to return to Jiang Dong. Not knowing the true motive of Zhou Yu, Yuan Shu approved his request and gave him the appointment. In Jian An 3rd year, Sun Ce welcomed Zhou Yu into his forces personally and conferred Zhou Yu the rank of Jian Wei Jiang Jun. In addition, he dispatched 2,000 troops and 50 horses to be placed under the command of Zhou Yu. During then, Zhou Yu was 24 years old and people in the Wu prefecture would refer to him as Zhou Lang (or Young Gentleman Zhou) Zhou Yus charitable and trustworthy nature was well known in the Lu Jiang region and he was ordered to defend Niu Zhu. Subsequently, he was given the appointment of the magistrate of Chun Gu. Soon, Sun Ce decided to attack Jing Zhou and Zhou Yu was given the appointment of Zhong Fu Jun and the Grand Administrator of Jiang Xia. They launched an attack and captured the city of Wan. During then, Sun Ce and Zhou Yu married the daughters of Qiao Gong who were great beauties (their names were not mentioned). Following which, they reinitiated the attack at Xun Yang and defeated Liu Xun. Thereafter, they attacked Jiang Xia prefecture and diverted their armies back to subjugate Yu Zhang and Lu Ling. Zhou Yu was then tasked to defend Ba Qiu. In Jian An 5th year, Sun Ce passed away and Sun Quan took over his place as the overall commander. Zhou Yu returned for the funeral. Back at the Wu prefecture, Zhang Zhao (who was holding the appointment of Chang Shi) and Zhou Yu were made jointly in-charge of the States affairs. In Jian An 11th year, Zhou Yu, Sun Yu and some others attacked Ma Tun and Bao Tun. They beheaded their chieftains and took approximately 10,000 people in captivity. Soon after the Grand Administrator of Jiang Xia, Huang Zhu, dispatched Deng Long with several thousands soldiers to attack Chai Sang. Zhou Yu retaliated and captured Deng Long alive. In the spring of Jian An 13th year, Sun Quan attacked Jiang Xia and appointed Zhou Yu as the commander of the front army. During this year, Cao Caos army

invaded Jing Zhou and LiuZong, together with his officials and soldiers, surrendered to Cao Cao. As such, Cao Caos army was boosted by several tens of thousands infantry soldiers and the naval forces of Jing Zhou. This event frightened many of the generals in Jiang Dong and Sun Quan gathered them to seek their opinions. The majority of the generals present were in favor of surrendering. Some of their main reasons were as follows:

i. Some were fearful of Cao Caos infamous reputation from his previous exploits. ii. Some thought that since Cao Cao had captured Jing Zhou, the kingdom of Wu could no longer rely on its geographical advantage in the form of the river Yang Tze. iii. Cao Caos recent acquiring of Liu Biaos naval fleet (with about 1,000 vessels) would substantiate his naval forces to a large extent. With that, it would be possible for Cao Cao to launch a concurrent attack from the land and via the river at Jiang Dong. iv. The unfavorable circumstances noted in point (i) and (iii), were made worse by the fact that Cao Caos army outnumbered Wus army.
However, Zhou Yu disagreed with those points of view. He argued that Cao Caos southern expedition had several weaknesses. Firstly, Zhou Yu noted that Cao Cao was actually a traitor of Han even though he was holding the appointment of the Prime Minister of Han. Cao Caos northern provinces were not completely stable and he had to worry about Ma Chao and Han Sui at his rear (in Guan Xi). Secondly, Cao Caos northern army was not familiar with naval combat unlike the southerners. Thirdly, the season at that moment was winter and the army of Cao Cao would likely be tired due to the long matches from the north. Finally, if they were not accustomed to the climate in the south, it was likely that they would be plagued with illnesses. As such, Zhou Yu felt that the situation during then provided the best opportunity to capture Cao Cao alive

and he requested Sun Quan for 30,000 elite soldiers to be stationed at Xia Kou. Zhou Yu further guaranteed Sun Quan that he would be able to defeat Cao Cao. Hearing that, Sun Quans resolve to resist Cao Cao was strengthened. At that moment, Liu Bei was defeated by Cao Cao and he met Lu Su at Dang Yang. In the meeting, both devised plans for alliance against Cao Cao. Subsequently, Liu Bei stationed himself at Xia Kou. In addition, Liu Bei sent Zhuge Liang as an envoy to Sun Quan. Following that, Sun Quan dispatched Zhou Yu, Cheng Pu and other Wu generals to meet Liu Bei in order to consolidate their forces against Cao Caos army. The army of the Sun-Liu alliance engaged Cao Caos army at Chi Bi. During then, Cao Caos army was already having problems with many soldiers falling sick. As such, during the initial engagement, Cao Caos army was promptly defeated and retreated back to the northern shore of the river Yang Tze. Seeing that Cao Caos army was numerous, Huang Gai felt that it would be difficult to resist them for long. However, he observed that Cao Caos ships were linked together and he suggested to Zhou Yu that it was actually possible to repel the enemies if they launched a fire attack at them. The suggestion was accepted and preparations were made for the fireboats (boats stuffed with inflammable materials). Subsequently, a letter was sent to Cao Cao falsely claiming that Huang Gai intended to surrender. The ruse was successful and the soldiers of Wei were anticipating the arrival of Huang Gai. At that moment, Huang Gai arrived and set his fireboats on fire. Aided by the strong winds and the fact that Cao Caos ships were chained together, the fire quickly spread throughout Cao Caos navy and even to the naval camps on the shore. Within moments, the raging inferno resulted in heavy casualties in Cao Caos army. Cao Cao was forced to retreat and defend Nan prefecture against the victorious allied armies. Meanwhile, Liu Bei and Zhou Yu led their troops in pursuit. Nevertheless, Cao Cao himself had returned to the north after leaving Cao Ren to guard the city of Jiang Ling. Soon after, Zhou Yu and Cheng Pu launched an attack at Nan prefecture, which was defended by Cao Ren. The attacking troops and the defenders camped on the opposite banks of the great river. Before the engagement, Zhou Yu dispatched Gan

Ning to station himself at Yi Ling. Seeing that, Cao Ren divided his forces and sent troops to attack Gan Ning. Faced with Cao Rens forces, Lu sent a letter to Zhou Yu requesting for help. On the advice of L Meng, Zhou Yu left Ling Tong to guard the rear and proceeded with L Meng to save Gan Ning. Having relieved Gan Ning, Zhou Yu led his troops across the river and prepared for a decisive battle with Cao Ren at a specified date. On the day of battle, Zhou Yu personally led his troops into the foray but was hit by an arrow on the right side of his chest, forcing him to retreat. Cao Ren got news of Zhou Yus injury and decided to take the opportunity to attack Zhou Yus army. However, despite his injury, Zhou Yu inspected his troops and gave them words of encouragement. As a result, the morale of Zhou Yus army was greatly boosted and they managed to defeat Cao Ren forcing him to retreat. Subsequently, Sun Quan appointed Zhou Yu as Pian Jiang Jun and the Grand Administrator of Nan prefecture. Zhou Yu was also ordered to station his troops at Jiang Ling for defensive purposes. Liu Bei, in the capacity of Zuo Jiang Jun (Left General) and Governor of Jing Zhou, set up his office at Gong An. When Liu Bei visited Sun Quan at Jing Kou, Zhou Yu suggested to Sun Quan to be wary of Liu Bei due to his potential and the support he got from Guan Yu and Zhang Fei. In addition, Zhou Yu wanted to have Liu Bei separated from his brothers and be positioned at Wu prefecture, giving him a life of luxury. In that way, Zhou Yu felt that he would be able to lead Zhang Fei and Guan Yu into battle thus assuring victories for future campaigns. However, Sun Quan felt that there was a need to attract more talents to his forces given the threat presented by Cao Cao in the north and harming Liu Bei would not go in line with that. Moreover, Sun Quan was not sure that Liu Bei could be controlled that easily. As a result, Zhou Yus advice was not heeded. During that time, Liu Zhang was the Governor of Yi Zhou (the Xi Chuan region) and he was facing the threat of Zhang Lu. Zhou Yu visited Sun Quan at Jing Kou and presented his plan to conquer Cao Caos northern territories. Firstly, Zhou Yu wanted to lead an army, together with Sun Yu to capture the Shu territories. If successful, Zhou Yu planned to combine forces with Zhang Lu and positioned Sun Yu at Shu

territory to link up with Ma Chao. Zhou Yu would then return to Jing Zhou and together with Sun Quan, attack Cao Cao from the direction of Xiang Yang. Sun Quan accepted his proposal and Zhou Yu returned to JiangLing to make preparations. However, Zhou Yu died of sickness on his way to Ba Qiu. He was only 36 years old then. http://kongming.net/novel/sgz/zhouyu.php

Zhou Yu (Gongjin)

()
Comprehensive Officer Biography Translated & Authored by Jonathan Wu

Place of Birth: Shu County, Lu Jiang Commandery (Presently Shu Cheng, An Hui Province) Life Span: AD 175 210 A.D. (35 years) Titles: Chief of Juchao County, Grand Administrator of Jiangxia, General of the Gentlemen of the Household Who Establishes Majesty, Great Commander-in-Chief, Grand Administrator of Nan Family: Zhou Jing, Zhou Zhong (granduncles), Zhou Shang (uncle), Xiao Qiao (wife), Sun Ce (inlaw), two sons

The Zhou family of Lujiang Commandery was a family of considerable wealth and power in Jiang Dong. A paternal granduncle of Zhou Yu was once appointed as Grand Commandant of the Han, and his other male relatives continued to hold important positions in the bureaucracy (1). According to the biography of Sun Ce, he met with Zhou Yu when they were both in Shouchun, and they became good friends (2). The Zhou family residence was at Shu county, and when the Lady Wu moved there with her family, Zhou Yu offered them a place to stay. When Liu Yao moved his forces against Wu Jing, the uncle of Sun Ce and vassal of Yuan Shu, Zhou Shang was appointed as Grand Administrator of Danyang; and Zhou Yu followed him there. Wu Jing took command of the army and fought against Liu Yao

for over a year without any result. At this point, Sun Ce arrived at Danyang with his own force and took command of the forces (3). Sun Ce and Zhou Yu took Liu Yaos supply depot at Niuzhu, then moved against Zhai Rong and Xie Li. Sun Ces forces successfully took Moling and Qua, driving out Liu Yaos forces on the southern bank of the Yangzi. Headquarters were set up in Qua and Sun Ces mother and brothers were brought there as well. After subdueing the rebellions of Hill people in the area, Sun Ce sent Zhou Yu back to Danyang to protect it (4). In AD 196, Yuan Shu was fighting for Xu Province just north of the Yangzi. He recalled Zhou Shang to Shouchun and offered a military rank to Zhou Yu. However Zhou Yu was already suspicious of Yuan Shu and asked to be made Chief of Juchao County in Lujiang province instead (5). Zhou Yus suspicions were warranted as Yuan Shu declared himself Emperor of the Zhong dynasty in the summer of AD 197. Sun Ce seperated himself from Yuan Shu and invited all of his old friends to join him. Zhou Yu left his post at Juchao and joined Sun Ces staff, along with his personal friend Lu Su (6). Sun Ce welcomed Zhou Yu into his army and appointed him Imperial Corps Commander. In addition, Zhou Yu was given thousand troops to guard Niuzhu and was oppointed as Grand Administrator of Chungu(7). The death of Yuan Shu in AD 199 opened up new opportunities for Sun Ce. Together with Zhou Yu, he lead a force north across the Yangzi to capture Shouchun and its capital Huan. Following their success, Sun Ce and Zhou Yu turned south towards the forces of Huang Zu. They defeated Huang Zhus son Huang She and captured Jiangxia Commandery. Sun Ce sent a memorial to the crown, in which he appointed Zhou Yu as Grand Administrator of Jiangxia, General of the Gentlemen of the Household Who Establishes Majesty, and Protector of the Army at the Centre. Having pushed back Huang Zu, Sun Ce turned his attention to Tong Zhi in Luling and Hua Xin, successor of Liu Yao, in Yuzhang. Zhou Yu, along with Sun Ces nephew Sun Fu, were sent to Nancheng where they would monitor Tong Zhi. Within a month Luling was captured and Sun Fu was appointed as Grand Administrator. At this point,

Zhou Yu and Sun Ce both married a girl from the Qiao family, Sun Ce married the older sister Da Qiao, and Zhou Yu the younger sister Xiao Qiao (8). Sun Ce was assasinated in AD 200 at the age of 25, and his younger brother Sun Quan succeeded him as head of the family and as Grand Administrator of Kuai Ji (9). Zhou Yu left his post at Baqui and took his troops back to Wu Commandery where he attended the funeral of his close friend and companion Sun Ce. Since Sun Quan was still young and inexperienced, the Lady Wu appointed Zhang Zhao as his tutor and Zhou Yu shared the burden of the administration with him. Zhou Yu aided Sun Quan in setting up the military order and discipline, and he was well liked among the officers. Cheng Pu, a much older and veteran officer of Wu was initially discontent with Gongjin for ignoring his plans and making him look inferior. However, Cheng Pu started to realize the wisdom in Zhou Yu and honored him from then on, speaking nothing but praise about the young Wu commander. In the eleventh year of Rebuilt Tranquility (AD 206), Sun Quan renewed the attack on Huang Zu in Eastern Jing Province, with Zhou Yu as the commander and Sun Yu from Danyang as support. Zhou Yu first had to deal the Mo and Bao tribes before moving on to Huang Zus fort at Xiakou. Zhou Yu killed the tribe leaders and migrated some ten thousand people back into Sun family teritory. Huang Zu responded and sent a few thousand soldiers, commanded by Deng Long, to oppose Zhou Yu. The forces under Deng Long were routed and Zhou Yu captured Deng Long at Zhaisang. Sun Quan joined the offensive personally and Zhou Yu continued to take resources from Huang Zus teritory. In the spring of AD 208, the final offensive against Huang Zu in Xiakou began. Zhou Yu personally led the vanguard, along with Dong Xi and Ling Tong (10). The city was taken by the Sun Clan forces, and Huang Zu was killed in battle. This victory acknowledged and secured Sun Quans dominance of the south. His forces spread from Wu Commandery all the way to Xiakou in Jing Province. While the Sun clan was fighting its old enemies in Yang Province and Eastern Jing Province, a lot was changing in the North. Cao Cao had completely taken care of all the opposition in the north and now turned his attention south, to Jing Province, where

Liu Biao still reigned. Liu Biao died and his son Liu Zong took over his fathers position. However Liu Zong surrendered his forces to Cao Cao and the region quickly fell to the Cao clan. Cao Cao had one more enemy in Jing: Liu Bei, who he needed to deal with (11). During Lu Sus mission to Xiangyang, he encountered Liu Bei on the way. He went back to Sun Quans headquarters, accompanied by Liu Beis adviser Zhuge Liang. Zhuge Liang petitioned Sun Quan to aid Liu Bei in his struggle against Cao Cao (12). Sun Quan became annoyed with Zhuge Liang, and at Lu Sus advise he waited for Zhou Yu to come back from his mission. Sun Quan was most likely reluctant to help Liu Bei, since the Sun family had always tried to maintain its independance in the south, and more importantly, Sun Quan had no reason to trust Liu Bei with his own army. Zhou Yu returned and advised the young Sun ruler to oppose Cao Cao in Jing through use of the Yangzi (13). Zhou Yu pointed out that Cao Cao was not used to fighting on the sea, that his troops were exhausted from their long march, and that the coming winter would prove difficult for his troops and would not give them much time to prepare. Zhou Yu asked for 30,000 elite troops and wanted to take Cheng Pu and Lu Su with him. Sun Quan agreed, and although Cheng Pu, who held equal rank, was officially in charge of the vanguard, there is no doubt that Zhou Yu arranged the battle himself. The battle against Cao Cao, in coordination with Liu Bei, took place in the winter of the year AD 208. Cao Caos navy squared off against the elite of the Wu naval forces under Zhou Yu and Cheng Pu. The battle of Chi Bi or Red Wall, is perhaps one of the most disputed in Chinese History. The records of the battle are filled with propaganda from all sides, and it is therefore difficult to summarize what actually happened (14). Zhou Yus second in command, Huang Gai, noted that Cao Cao had a large fleet but they were vulnerable because they were chained together. Huang Gai and Zhou Yu initiated the Battered Body plan, and Huang Gai faked surrender to Cao Cao (15). Huang Gai burned down Cao Caos fleet, and Zhou Yu immediately attacked. Cao Cao was defeated and forced to retreat back to the north, leaving his cousin Cao Ren in

charge of Jiangling. Zhou Yu then began the siege of Jiangliang with a limited amount of forces. The seige of Jiangling took a long time, as most of the forces were still on the other side of the Yangzi. After a few months of indecisive battle, Gan Ning lead his forces over the river to aid Zhou Yu. Cao Ren sent his forces to intercept them, and Gan Ning was forced to fight them on his way to Zhou Yu. On the advice of L Meng, Zhou Yu left Ling Tong in command of the seige and lead his main force to assist Gan Ning (16). Zhou Yu was wounded by an arrow during the attack, but he kept the moral of his troops up and they scored a complete victory over Cao Ren, who abandonned Jiangling. Cao Cao had been pushed back north all the way to Xiangyang, and the Sun family was rapidly gaining teritory. Zhou Yu was appointed as Grand Administrator of Nan Commandery, and Cheng Pu took up his post as Grand Administrator of Jiangxia. Zhou Yu advised Sun Quan to be very careful with Liu Bei, and suggested that he treat Liu Bei with luxury at first, and then control him later on. Sadly however, Sun Quan did not heed this excellent advise. Zhou Yu continued to make plans, instead of going North, Zhou Yu wanted to go west into the lands of BaShu, where the pacifist Liu Zhang had been the prominent leader. Sun Quan accepted the plan and Zhou Yu went back to Jiangling to make preparations. Zhou Yu had made plans to invade Yi Province together with Sun Yu, however, he died of illness at the young age of thirtyfive. On his deathbed, he recommended Lu Su to be his successor and urged Sun Quan to always listen to his advise. Sun Quan agreed, and Zhou Yu died later that night. His widow and two sons remained under the protection of Sun Quan, and Lu Su inherited his position. Zhou Yu was a broad-minded and outspoken man with magnificent potential. Loved and honored by many people, and a master in music and rhythm. Some references say that Zhou Yu could spot an error in sound and rhythm even after many cups of wine(17). In the novel, Gongjin is told to dance to his own musical compositions and wrote his own songs. Truly, Zhou Yu was one of the most influential

and fascinating personas of his time, and surpasses both Sun Jian and Sun Ce in fame as one of the finest strategists of China.
(1) As we mentioned earlier in Zhu Juns Biography, the rank of () Tai Wei or Grand Commandant was the highest rank in the bureaucracy. The Grand Command was the head of the Three Dukes, and thus, in theory, the most powerful man in the Empire after the Emperor himself. <return>

(2) Zhou Yus own biography dates their first meeting to be in AD 190, when the Lady Wu moved to Shu County with her kids. The most logical story, in my eyes, is the one in Sun Ces biography. Because when the Lady Wu arrived in Shu County, she was greeted by the Zhou family and given residence in Shu. It seems unlikely that they would have extended such courtesy to the wife of a general they hardly knew. Granted, Sun Jians reputation as Grand Administrator of Chang Sha gave the family more priveledges. However, there is no recorded contact between Sun Jian and Zhou Shang (Zhou Yus uncle and Grand Administrator of Danyang), I doubt that Sun Jian would have a notable reputation with the Zhou family. In addition, and perhaps more importantly, Zhou Yus family was already wellestablished and powerful. In their eyes, they would not need an alliance with the Sun family, because they proved to be capable of taking care of themselves. It does supply a motive however, as to why Zhou Shang was favourable of the friendship between Zhou Yu and Sun Ce. Since the Sun family had only recently come to fame, the Zhou family could only benefit from a relationship with them, without having to worry about a potential rivalry in the future. <return>

(3) It is very surprising that the young Sun Ce at this point, would be able to take over command of such a large group of people. Both Wu Jing and Zhou Shang were high ranking officers and clearly more experienced. However, there are no contradictions found in the biographies of Wu Jing and Sun Ben about the event, so we can be sure that this is how it really happened. For more information, see my Sun Ce Biography. <return>

(4) For the next decade or so, Danyang would remain the most disputed teritory in Sun Ces Kingdom. Both Huang Zu and Liu Yao stretched their authority towards the western part of Danyang, and this made matters difficult for Sun Ce and Zhou Shang, who was now aided by his nephew Zhou Yu. <return>

(5) According to Zhou Yus biography in Sanguozhi, Zhou Yu returned briefly to Shouchun to request his reassignment to Juchao County. This was a smart move on Zhou Yus part, which proves that Zhou Yu had no interest in flowery titles and rank. Under Yuan Shu, Zhou Yu could possibly have attained a high military and civil rank, instead he settled for Chief of a small county in his native Commandery of Lujiang. This way, Zhou Yu would not have to be involved with Yuan Shu, and would place him in the middle of Shouchun and Qua. For more information on ranks on County/Commandery level, see De Crespigny, South China under the Later Han. <return>

(6) The biography of Lu Su in in SGZ 54/2 (SGZ Online , SGZ, with Peis Notes). I have written a seperate biography for Lu Su in English. Lu Su was Zhou Yus first successor and a cherished advisor of the later ruler of Wu, Sun Quan. <return>

(7) The biography of Zhou Yu in Sanguo Zhi tells a similar story to that of Sun Ce (Sun Ces Bio, note 6, Quoting Jiangbiao Zhuan). It says that Zhou Yu was called Young Gentleman Zhou, and that his sympathetic and trustworthy nature was well known in the area of Lujiang Commandery. <return>

(8) It was said that at this time, Sun Ce joked: Though the two Qiao girls may be exiles, now they have got us for their husbands, they have all they need to make them happy. From Generals of the South, Chapter 4, page 227 below. <return>

(9) Though it appears the takeover went smooth, Sun Quan was certainly not the only candidate for succession. He had a younger brother Sun Yi, who was more like Sun Ce than Sun Quan was. Sun Ces nephews, Sun Ben and Sun Fu, also held considerable rank under both Yuan Shu and Sun Ce. A more likely, and possibly more attractive choice for succesion was Zhou Yu himself. We should not forget that Zhou Yu was a member of a powerful family, and he earned the respect of many people in all the counties of Lujiang. However it does not appear that Zhou Yu had any desire to take over the command, and he served Sun Quan loyaly for the years to come. <return>

(10) Dong Xi was already a noted warrior under the Sun clan, Ling Tong at this time couldnt have been more than fifteen years old at the time. In one of the earlier battles against Huang Zu, Ling Tongs father Ling Cao was killed by Gan Ning. For more information, see the Biographies of Gan Ning, and Ling Tong. <return>

(11) Liu Bei was a distant relative of the Emperor Xian and the future ruler of the Shu Kingdom. He and a small gathering of friends served in the North, mainly in Yu and Xu Provinces. At this time however, Liu Bei was running away from Cao Cao, who had routed his forces several times. No doubt these were critical times for Liu Bei. <return>

(12) There are different versions of the debate available, both recorded by Chen Shou in Sanguo Zhi. The records contradict each other and I can only provide a rough summary of the debate. During the times of the first debate, Zhou Yu was on a mission in Poyang, and was therefore not present. Like all records of spoken words and debate, one must realize that these records can never reflect the entire truth, and thus these kinds of things should not be taken too seriously. <return>

(13) The meeting between Sun Quan and Zhou Yu was recorded in Jiangbiao Zhuan, quoted in the SGZ biography of Zhou Yu. Zhou Yu dismissed the arguements made by Zhang Zhao and others, who were in favor of surrendering to Cao Cao. Sun Quan was delighted with Zhou Yus analysis and his mind was set at ease. He told his officers to no longer speak of surrender, unless they wanted to be punished. <return>

(14) The Wu side of the propaganda included a few interesting stories. According to Sanguo yanyi, Cao Cao attempted to recruit Zhou Yu through means of their mutual friend Jiang Gan. But Zhou Yu was not fooled by Jiang Gan and used him in his own plot to kill the generals Cai Mao and Zhang Yun, who where Cao Caos only generals exprienced in Naval warfare. Cao Caos plot turned against him and cost him two valuable generals. <return>

(15) Huang Gai was already a respected general by that time, and he was already past his fifties. The Battered Body plan is a rather heroic and touching one. Huang Gai offered to be severely beat in front of Cao Caos spies, for defying Zhou Yu and supporting surrender. Huang Gai was beaten in public by Zhou Yu, and a fake letter of defection was sent to Cao Cao. The plan worked and Huang Gai was able to get his boat close to Cao Caos fleet and burn it down. Huang Gai took a great personal risk, and his courage and loyalty to the house of Sun is perhaps the most touching, a most human of all stories related to heroism. To read more about Huang Gai, see his comprehensive officer biography. <return>

(16) We already talked about Ling Tong in note 10, and by this time, Gan Ning had surrendered to the Sun clan, but was still on unfavourable terms with Ling Tong. L Meng was the third successor to Zhou Yus

position and a noted scholar and warrior. The biography of L Meng has already been translated for your reading pleasure. <return>

(17) Generals of the South, Sanguo Zhi quotiong Jiangbiao Zhuan. Cheng Pu said: To be with Zhou Gongjin is to drink cold wine unmixed with water: you become drunk before you realise it. Also in Jiangbiao Zhuan, the late Lady Wu said that, Gongjin is like a son to me. It is clear that Zhou Yu was loved and trusted by many people, and respected for his wisdom and talent. <return>

http://kongming.net/novel/kma/zhouyu.php

According to Romance of the Three Kingdoms , the Two Qiaos, daughters of Qiao Xuan, were known as two of the great beauties of ancient China. Their names are not recorded, so they are referred to simply as D Qio (Chinese: ) and Xio Qio (Chinese: ), literally "the elder Qiao" and "the younger Qiao". The elder Qiao sister was married to Sun Ce , the lord of Wu; while Xiao Qiao was married to Zhou Yu . Sun Ce has two recorded children - A daughter whom was married to Lu Xun, and a posthumous son Sun Shao. It is not known if Da Qiao gave birth to either child. In the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the two Qiaos were one of the major causes of the Battle of Red Cliffs . Zhuge Liang manipulated Zhou Yu under the guise of advising him of Cao Cao 's plot to obtain the Qiao sisters for himself. Enraged, Zhou Yu plotted with Zhuge Liang and Pang Tong to attack Cao Cao.
http://history.cultural-china.com/en/48History7902.html
DURING China's feudal epoch, society was male-centered. There was consequently a pervasive belief in man's superiority over woman that continued as the ruling ideology throughout feudal society. Women were thus regarded as little more than bond servants in feudal China. At this time, male dominance was guaranteed and maintained by certain norms. The three cardinal guides (ruler guides subject, father guides son, and husband guides wife) and the five constant virtues (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and sincerity) defined social behavior, and the three obediences (in ancient China a woman was required to obey her father before marriage, her husband during marriage, and her sons in widowhood) and four virtues (women's fidelity, physical charm, propriety in

speech and proficiency at needle work) guided the family order. In feudal China, women had no say at all as regards their marriage partner, being expected to comply unconditionally with their parents or brothers' arrangements. Women had neither the right to divorce their husbands, nor to remarry. Whether or not a woman outlived her husband, she was permitted to marry only once in her lifetime. On the other hand, a husband could lawfully abandon his wife if she committed one of the seven sins: being unfilial, barren, lascivious, jealous, succumbed to a repellent disease, meddling, or stealing. Having such a low social and familial status, women could not even dream of filling a place within the political and economic realm. During the long, dark period of Chinese feudal history that lasted more than 2,000 years, however, there was a brief and sunny respite for ancient downtrodden Chinese women. This was during the 618 to 765 zenith of the Tang Dynasty. Scholars from later ages agree that, compared to the majority of ancient Chinese women, those of the Tang Dynasty were blessed to have lived at this propitious time. Lucky Ladies of the Tang Dynasty

Women of the Tang Dynasty were fortunate to live at a time characterized by openmindedness and liberal ideas. After Emperor Taizong (Li Shimin) ascended the throne, Chinese politics, economics, culture, and national and foreign relations all underwent great development. National cohesion, and foreign spiritual and material civilization wielded great influence on the Tang Dynasty, greatly accelerating its progress. Li Shimin and other capable emperors adopted a series of guidelines and policies that could enrich the country and benefit the people, thus laying firm foundations for the later prosperity of the Tang Dynasty as embodied by the Zhenguan Governance and the Splendor of Kaiyuan. At the peak of the Tang Dynasty, advanced productivity and a strong economic basis were also reflected in the fields of philosophy, politics, culture, art, social ethics, and, most significantly, female social status. Shortly after the establishment of the Tang Dynasty, the imperial court decreed a favorable land allocation and taxation system in order to resume and develop agricultural production, which at the time took a leading role in the national economy. According to the new system, the government allocated land to both male householders and widows, the latter being given a greater share of land if they had dependants. With their own land on which to live, women could be more economically independent. According to the Tang Code, a couple wishing to divorce on the basis of mutual consent

and a peaceful process were not to be punished. This signifies that the law protected people's right to divorce through consultation. Historical records show that it was not unusual for women to divorce or remarry at this time. As a contrast to the prevailing attitude of other feudal dynasties, a widow was not considered to be "unchaste" if she remarried. A Tang Dynasty divorce agreement, unearthed from Dunhuang, reads: "Since we cannot live together harmoniously, we had better separate. I hope that after the divorce, niangzi (a form of address for one's wife) can be as young and beautiful as before, and may you find a more satisfactory husband. I hope that the divorce will not plant hatred between us in the future." This divorce agreement reflects not only the Tang women's equality within marriage but also the general open-mindedness of the Tang people. Women of the royal family were not subject to marital restrictions or constraints either. From the reign of Emperor Gaozong to that of Emperor Suzong during the early and middle Tang Dynasty, there were altogether 98 princesses, of which 61 married, among whom 24 remarried, and four married three times. This trend shook the very foundations of traditional feudal ethics. During the Tang Dynasty, it was common for the Han to intermarry with other ethnic groups or foreigners, and there was a law protecting Sino-foreign intermarriage. According to historical records: "Many huren (people of non-Han origin) who had lived in Chang'an for a long time married Han women and produced children." "Huren intermarry with the Han people, and now many youngsters in Chang'an are of mixed blood." Female members of the royal family were also married to other nationalities. Seven of Emperor Gaozu's 19 daughters were married to men of other nationalities, and eight of Emperor Taizong's 21 daughters took foreign husbands. In the 15th year (641) of the Zhenguan era, Princess Wencheng was married to the king of Tubo. She brought many advanced production techniques to Tubo, making a great contribution to the friendship and cultural exchanges between the Han and Tibetan people. The Tang Dynasty attached great importance to education, and Tang women were granted the same rights to, and opportunities for, education as men. This splendid dynasty is probably most celebrated for its wealth of great poets. The Complete Poetry of the Tang contains over 50,000 poems written by more than 2,000 poets, of whom at least 20 were influential figures in the history of Chinese literature. There were also many famous poetesses, of whom Shangguan Wan'er is representative. Shangguan's poems were in a style of all her own -- the Shangguan style, which provided much inspiration for Li Bai, the most famous of all ancient Chinese poets. In the Tang Dynasty, writing poetry was not merely the privilege pursuit of noblewomen but was also practiced by those of common origins. Tang women also had the chance to learn history, politics, and military skills. At the founding of this dynasty, Princess Pingyang personally participated in battles, having led a detachment of women to help her father, Emperor Gaozu. Princess Taiping, daughter of Emperor Gaozong, twice suppressed mutinies inside the imperial court at critical times. Living within a relaxed social environment, and having an independent social status, the behavior of well-educated Tang women was obviously quite different from that of the

women of former dynasties. They could drink wine to the limit of their capacity, and sing loudly in taverns; gallop through the suburbs with abandon; or even compete with men on the polo field. In the Tang Dynasty, women conducted social activities and carried on business independently. They even distinguished themselves within the political arena, a prime example being Empress Zhangsun -- the most virtuous empress in China. Virtuous Empress Empress Zhangsun was the wife of Emperor Taizong (Li Shimin). She was of Xianbei (an ancient ethnic group in China) origin. Zhangsun grew up on the central plains and received a very good education there, having a particularly good command of literature and history. At the time of Li Shimin's rivalry for the throne with his royal brothers, Zhangsun repeatedly cleared Li Shimin before Emperor Gaozu of the misdeeds with which he had been falsely framed. During the Xuanwumen Mutiny (in which Emperor Gaozu's sons fought for the throne), Zhangsun made a personal appearance in order to raise the army's morale, thus ultimately helping Li Shimin get rid of his political enemies. After being crowned empress, Zhangsun continued to live a simple life and prevented her relatives from obtaining official ranks through her influence. She would often advise Li Shimin to solicit useful suggestions and advice from courtiers. Wei Zheng, the prime minister during the reign of Emperor Taizong, was frequently blunt when remonstrating with the emperor. Sometimes Emperor Taizong was so infuriated that he threatened to behead Wei Zheng without further ado, but each time, it was Empress Zhangsun who poured oil on the troubled waters and protected the loyal prime minister. As mistress of the imperial harem, Empress Zhangsun was very considerate to the emperor's concubines, treating their children as her own. On hearing that any one of the concubines was ill, she would dose her with her own medicine. All concubines deeply respected Empress Zhangsun, and they lived together harmoniously, thus giving the emperor optimum time to handle state affairs. At the 10th year (636) of the Zhenguan Era, Empress Zhangsun died of illness at the age of 36. Before her death, she left a will asking for a simple burial, and advising Emperor Taizong to take heed of earnest advice and to be good to the common people. Emperor Taizong deeply mourned Zhangsun's death, and built a high platform inside the royal palace, from where he could see the Zhao Mausoleum where his beloved empress had been laid to rest. Empress Wu Zetian The ultimate Tang Dynasty woman was undoubtedly Wu Zetian. There were altogether 243 emperors during the 2,000 years from the beginning of the Qin Dynasty (221 BC) to the end of the Qing Dynasty (1911), and Wu Zetian was the only female monarch among them. Wu Zetian was the most legendary and controversial figure in Chinese history. She lived to be 82, and held power for 50 years. Wu Zetian was born into an official's family in Wenshui, Shanxi Province. She was not

only beautiful but also very intelligent. Although bestowed with strong female charm and grace, Wu Zetian was firm and unyielding in all her dealings. She entered the palace at the age of 14 and was assigned to wait upon Emperor Taizong, who gave her the name Mei, meaning charming and lovely, in acknowledgement of her beauty. But she did not like this name. After taking over power, she changed her name to Zhao (meaning the light of the sun and the moon illuminating every corner of the land). Wu Zetian was an uncompromising woman. At one time there was a wild and savage horse in the palace stables that no one could tame. Wu Zetian said that the way to deal with it was first to beat it with an iron whip, and if that did not work, to kill it. Wu Zetian was initially conferred the title of cairen (concubine of medium rank), but was unable to win much favor with Emperor Taizong. She worked as his secretary for 12 years, but she was neither promoted nor able to give birth to his child. Emperor Taizong's son, Li Zhi, however, was deeply infatuated with her. After the death of Taizong, Li Zhi was enthroned and Wu Zetian became empress. The emperor and empress ruled the country jointly. Since Li Zhi had delicate health, Wu Zetian was the actual ruler of the country. When Li Zhi died, Wu Zetian managed to stabilize the political situation based on her abundant experience of political intrigue. In 690, Wu Zetian ascended the throne and changed the title of the dynasty to Zhou. She disposed of all her political enemies and established the Wu family court. As monarch, she was a hardworking, sagacious and caring ruler. During Wu Zetian's reign, the country maintained its prosperity and the people lived in peace. The tribes who lived at the time of the newly established Zhou Dynasty all pledged allegiance to the empress. Having worked as Emperor Taizong's secretary for 12 years, Wu Zetian was very familiar with the former emperor's main priorities in his management of state affairs, many of which she followed, for example, his stress on agriculture, reducing tax and corvee, practicing a peaceful foreign policy, and widely soliciting advice and suggestions. The empress took great care to select talented people and put them in important positions. She also encouraged and supported female participation in politics. Shangguan Wan'er is a perfect example. Both her grandfather and father had been killed for opposing Wu Zetian's accession to power, and the young Wan'er and her mother were employed as maidservants at the palace where Wan'er received a very good education. She not only wrote beautiful poetry, but also gained an intimate knowledge of state affairs. Wu Zetian greatly appreciated her ability, and appointed Wan'er as her personal aide. Shangguan Wan'er proved her worth to the empress, not only through her ability to participate in the decision-making required by the memorials to the throne, but also by drafting imperial edicts for the empress. Shangguan once even acted as chief examiner of the final imperial examination. After Wu Zetian died, Shangguan Wan'er remained at court to assist Emperor Zhongzong in governing the country. Wu Zetian was very tolerant of different opinions emanating from her subordinates. Xu Yougong was the official in charge of the judiciary, but would often confront the empress with his dissatisfaction at some of the court verdicts. On one occasion, Wu Zetian became so incensed that she issued an order to behead Xu, but just as the execution was about to start, she pardoned him, instead demoting him to a commoner. When her anger had abated, she continued to solicit Xu's opinion, and reinstated him as head of the judiciary. In conclusion, Wu Zetian was an empress of status, power, and outstanding achievement.

Merits or Demerits, History Has the Verdict In order to maintain social stability, just before her death Wu Zetian decided to return state power to the Tang Dynasty. However, the shock waves caused by her behavior have never subsided. Even today, there are still opposing opinions as regards her conduct and her personality. No matter whether the epithet "iron hand empress" is complimentary or pejorative, no one can deny the history she created. During Wu Zetian's reign, the achievements of her predecessors were carried forward and further developed, eventually bringing the Tang Dynasty to the peak of its Kaiyuan splendor. Within the Tang Dynasty's centuries-long prosperity, 50 years can be accredited to Wu Zetian. It was the Tang Dynasty that created Empress Wu Zetian, and this indomitable woman reciprocated by devoting her life and energies to her people. Wu Zetian left orders that upon her death a tablet should be erected in front of the tomb in which she and Emperor Gaozong were buried, but that this tablet be left blank. In Wu Zetian's view, the merits and demerits of her life were subject to the evaluation of history alone. As empress she enjoyed emperor status and the people's support, but as a woman she had sacrificed almost everything -- relatives, friends, love, and ultimately, her life. How could a few words inscribed on a tablet hope to reflect the joys and woes of her life and the fickleness of the world she inhabited? As well as being an outstanding politician, Wu Zetian was also a great poetess and calligrapher. Versatile as she was, however, her passing nevertheless filled her subjects with a sense of desolation. Yang Yuhuan was another unforgettable woman of the Tang Dynasty. She was extremely beautiful and also proficient in dance and music. Yang Yuhuan was very much in love with Emperor Xuanzong, and the two were inseparable. This, however, incurred strong disapproval from the emperor's subordinates, and in the end, as the pair fled from the rebel army, Yang Yuhuan was forced to hang herself. Unlike Wu Zetian, Yang Yuhuan had no hand in politics, despite being the highestranking imperial concubine, yet, whether or not they entered into the politics of the time, both women were strongly discriminated against on the basis of their gender. Although Wu Zetian and Yang Yuhuan both lived in the open-minded Tang Dynasty, they could still not completely shake off the prejudice and bigotry that the feudal ethical code directed at them, especially within political struggle. In retrospect, the so-called lucky women of the Tang Dynasty may not have been fortunate enough to inspire the envy of today's women, but the Tang women's contribution towards advancing historical progress is undeniable and admirable. By staff reporter HUO JIANYING November 2001 China Today

http://www.chinavoc.com/history/tang/women.htm
HE Tang Dynasty (618-907), covering a period of 289 years, was not long in relation to China's 5,000-year civilization. It is nonetheless considered to be the greatest dynasty of ancient China. During its zenith of 140 years (618-765), the Tang Dynasty not only

ushered into China a period of unprecedented development and prosperity, but also contributed to the development and progress of humankind as a whole. The Chinese people are particularly proud of their two most resplendent dynastic periods -- the Han and the Tang -- considering them to be symbolic of China and the Chinese nation. Countless Chinese people, whether living in China or overseas, still refer to themselves as "Hanren" (Han person/people) or "Tangren" (Tang person/people). In European and American countries, the numerous Chinese communities, or "China Towns" are known as "Tangren Jie," meaning the neighborhood, or street, inhabited by the Tang people. Li Shimin: A Peerless Emperor For the thousands of years prior to the downfall of the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, the rulers of slave and feudal societies in China had exercised absolute autocracy, wherein a single person had supreme power over the law and the nation. This supreme figure was thus arbiter of the course of the historic development, and therefore the fate of the country, as well as the wellbeing of its population. For thousands of years, ruthless and tyrannical rulers inflicted misery and disaster upon the Chinese nation, and one who was competent and humane was both longed for and cherished by the ordinary people as an embodiment of their hope for the future. Li Shimin, a preeminent emperor in Chinese history, was born in 598. His father and grandfather had both been high-ranking officials during the Sui Dynasty (581-618). Li's childhood was during a period of turmoil. In 605, when Li was 7, Yang Guang, the second emperor of the Sui Dynasty, ascended the throne. This emperor soon became notorious for his debauched lifestyle and cruelty. He squandered the state treasury on lavish imperial buildings, and forced countless people into corvee labor, all of which eventually led to a peasant uprising in 611. This uprising signaled rebellion and mutiny throughout China. Li Shimin consequently grew up amidst political turbulence and clique intrigue. In 615, at the age of 17, he urged his father, Li Yuan, then a military commander stationed in Taiyuan, to go with the flow of this historic climax and rise against the Sui emperor. Three years later, Li Yuan became the first emperor of the Tang Dynasty. Stability and solidarity were the top priorities of this new dynasty, and Li Shimin was obviously endowed with both military and political ingenuity. In the course of helping his father stabilize the nation Li Shimin established a strong military force, as well as a large think-tank of expertise in different fields. In 626, at the age of 28, he succeeded his father as emperor. Li changed the title of his reign to Zhenguan and retained the throne for 23 years. He brought about a new era that laid foundations for the great prosperity, development and progress with which the Tang Dynasty became associated in later years. The period of his rule, known as the "Zhenguan Governance," is acknowledged as a milestone in Chinese history. This reign has rich connotations, being regarded by historians and politicians alike as the model for successful government, while to ordinary people it is synonymous with a happy life.

An Unsinkable "Boat"

China had been a feudal society for more than 1,000 years prior to Li Shimin's ascent to the throne. There was, therefore, a sizable accumulation of experience in state administration that had been valued by monarchs of the dynasties preceding the Tang. Li Shimin was also highly appreciative of this wisdom gained from past experience, but the "Zhenguan Governance" of his creation was imbued with an excellence that set it apart from previous governments. The most important difference in Li Shimin's approach was that he did not regard the emperor as the "son of God," believing that the stability of an imperial rule was dependant upon the support of the masses. He said, "The monarch is a boat and his subjects are the water. Water carries the boat, but can also capsize it." He held that the monarch's representation of, and care for the interests of, the masses was the essence of governance. His theories were reflected in the daily administration of his reign. After ascending the throne, and remembering well the mistakes that had led to the downfall of the Sui Dynasty, Li Shimin implemented a series of policies that were in the interests of the masses. These included a ban on extravagance, encouragement of frugality, reduction of taxes and corvee labor, construction of water conservancy projects, support of agriculture, and encouragement of a population increase. The emperor did not, however, have heaven's blessing. During the second year of Zhenguan, China suffered a severe drought, followed by plagues of locusts and subsequent famine. Countless people had no choice but to leave their homes and sell their children. Li Shimin thereupon promulgated a decree whereby children sold could be redeemed by gold and silk issued by the imperial government, and returned to their parents. On one occasion, when visiting an area particularly seriously hit by locusts, he picked up a locust and, before eating it, said, "I'd rather it ate my innards." In the ninth month of that year, he set an example of frugality by dismissing 3,000 maids of honor from the court. The following year, however, China was once more deluged. Li Shimin was seen to have had no power over nature, but his example and identification with the masses was all that the ordinary Chinese could ask. It is recorded in historical documents: "Due to the dedicated efforts and care on the part of the government, the people had no cause to complain, even though they had to find their food where they could. That year (the fourth year of Zhenguan) yielded an abundant harvest, and those who had fled from famine returned home. A dou (1 decaliter) of rice cost no more than three or four cash." In many places people "did not lock their doors, and when traveling, took no food with them, instead buying it along the way." Li Shimin not only set a good example, but was also very strict with local leaders and administrators. He kept a close eye on their performance, making personal inspections, and sending people to "supervise local governments, punishing those negligent and promoting the competent, to the great satisfaction of the people."

A Wise Monarch and Honest Officials Li Shimin's wisdom was reflected in dealings with his own staff. Honesty and competence were his top criteria for any official, with no preference based on social or ethnic status. Wei Zheng, the best-known government advisor of the Tang Dynasty, had formerly served Li's brother, Li Jiancheng, an arch-rival for imperial power. Wei was captured after Li Jiancheng's defeat and death. Li Shimin was well aware of Wei's skill as consultant, and asked him why he had advised Li Jiancheng to do away with all dissidents, including Li Shimin himself, thus instigating enmity between the two brothers. Wei answered that had Li Jiancheng followed his advice, he would not have been defeated. Li Shimin appreciated Wei's talent and honesty, and offered him a key governmental position. Wei was gratified at the emperor's understanding and trust, and during his time in office wrote over 200 reports, giving advice on administration, at the same time urging the emperor to solicit opinions from other sources. The emperor was very much in tune with Wei's concept of a benevolent government, and totally agreed with his view that, "The monarch is enlightened when he listens to all opinions, and benighted when he is biased" which has since become a well-known Chinese proverb. Wei Zheng and Li Shimin did, however, also have their differences. On one occasion the two quarreled during an imperial audience. On his return to the inner court, the emperor said angrily that Wei Zheng was too willful, and that one day he would execute him. The empress Zhangsun congratulated him, saying that it was only when the emperor was wise that his ministers were upright enough to speak their minds. The emperor immediately calmed down. Li Shimin loved to hunt, but Wei Zheng believed that the emperor should exercise restraint, so as not to become obsessed. It is recorded that in the 10th month of the second year of Zhenguan, Li Shimin "wished to go to Nanshan Mountain on a hunting trip, but desisted from telling Wei Zheng for fear he would criticize him. After perching a snipe on his shoulder he saw Wei Zheng approaching, upon which the emperor hid the bird beneath his robes. Wei talked with the emperor at such length that the bird died." There were few other emperors who, like Li Shimin, accepted so earnestly the supervision of their ministers. Li Shimin opened a channel for officials to offer straightforward advice, but also warned them against slandering others, as this would be treated as a crime and severely punished. In 643, Wei Zheng died, and Li Shimin sorely mourned his loss. At this time of grief he thus addressed an audience: "Copper can serve as a mirror for us to see that we are properly dressed; the past can serve as a mirror so that we know what is good; and a person can serve as a mirror so that we may know our losses and gains. I have always kept all three of these mirrors, but today Wei Zheng has died, and one of my mirrors is lost. " One Family Within the Four Seas Another area in which Li Shimin excelled was that of dealing with ethnic and foreign affairs. He broke away from conventions of discrimination between that Chinese and that foreign. He stated, "There has since ancient times been a biased belief that the Chinese

race is superior, and all others inferior. I love them all as one." The Tang Dynasty's economic strength enabled it to open its door with confidence to foreign people, commodities, ideology, culture and lifestyles. This extensive absorption and integration created a dynasty that was not only of China but also of the whole world. Ever since his enthronement, Li Shimin had been aware of the great importance of the Silk Road, and during the recovery period of the early Tang Dynasty, launched several military expeditions to restore peace in frontier regions and along the Silk Road. A more congenial environment was thus created for the people of various ethnic groups living on the frontier, and a smooth passage was guaranteed along this Eurasian passageway. Apart from the Silk Road, seven other overland and marine routes leading to various countries existed during the Tang Dynasty. In the fourth year of Zhenguan, Li Shimin issued a decree allowing merchants to travel and trade freely with frontier inhabitants. He later issued more ordinances with the aim of protecting the safety of merchants and encouraging trade between China and other countries, and also promulgated a series of preferential policies, including the reduction of tariffs and provision of free firewood to travelling merchants. The Tang Dynasty became the center of world attention for its economic prosperity, material wealth, enlightened politics, social stability, advanced science, and brilliant culture and arts. Huge numbers of foreigners and people of ethnic minorities came to the dynastic capital of Chang'an. A census taken during the third year of Zhenguan showed that the population in Chang'an was one million, and included over 100,000 foreigners and people of ethnic minorities. In the fourth year of Zhenguan, the Tujue (Turkic) tribes fragmented, and after Li Shimin's acceptance of them, hundreds of thousands of Tujue people found shelter under Tang rule. The emperor arranged for all chieftains to become officials in Chang'an, and to serve in various departments of the imperial government. At this time, the imperial court had over 200 officials, almost half of which were foreigners or from ethnic minorities. Foreign culture, arts and lifestyle thus blended into the daily lives of the local people. During the Tang Dynasty, anything foreign or alien was labeled "hu." For a time during the Tang Dynasty a "hu" vogue spread throughout China and remained dominant for a lengthy period of time. Like their emperor, the common people of the Tang Dynasty accepted foreigners readily and hospitably, and absorbed the associated accoutrements that they loved or found useful. This integration of things both Chinese and foreign greatly propelled social progress and the development of the Tang Dynasty. The capital city of Chang'an was a genuine cosmopolis where foreigners were everywhere, from the imperial palace to common streets and alleys, and even among the emperor's guards. Shops and restaurants owned by "Hu" people could be seen throughout Chang'an. Foreign culture also made a great contribution to the cultural splendor of the Tang Dynasty, particularly within the performing arts. In the early Tang Dynasty, there were 10 musical and dance programs, seven of which were from the Western Regions and abroad. The Hu Swirling Dance was the best known of all, and indispensable to any program of entertainment. The dance was performed, either as a solo or duet, on a small round carpet. The dancer or dancers swirled and spun dazzlingly, their dresses flying out in a manner that made them resemble a spinning top. Bai Juyi, a great poet of the Tang

Dynasty, described the speed of this dance as faster than that of a spinning wheel. In the early Tang Dynasty, the Chinese population was less than 18 million. A hundred years later, in 755, the population had reached 52.92 million. In ancient feudal society, the rate of population increase was an important indicator of the economic strength and social progress of a country. This 100-year period later became known as the Tang of Great Prosperity. By staff reporter HUO JIANYING November 2001 China Today

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