DEDICATION This report is dedicated to God Almighty, who has made my dreams come through.

To my Family, I say thank you all.

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the students Industrial Work Experience Scheme [SIWES] was carried out by Ighoraye Gilda Akwekwe, at Chevron Nigeria Limited, Lagos and was duly supervised.

CONTENTS

Dedication-----------------------------------------------------------------------Certification----------------------------------------------------------------------Abstract----------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter 1-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 Gas Wells--------------------------------------------------------------------------5 Gas Properties---------------------------------------------------------------------6 Gas Lifts---------------------------------------------------------------------------7 Well Head and Manifold---------------------------------------------------------8 Chapter 2-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 Initial Separation Process------------------------------------------------------- 10 Vertical Two-Phase Separators--------------------------------------------------11 Horizontal Two-Phase Separators-----------------------------------------------12 Comparison of Two- Phase Separator Types-----------------------------------13 Horizontal Three-Phase Separators---------------------------------------------14 Vertical Three- Phase Separators------------------------------------------------15 Potential Operating Problem-----------------------------------------------------16

ABSTRACT

This report is designed to serve as a summary of my experience throughout the successful period of my Industrial attachment at Chevron Nigeria Limited as required by Igbinedion University Okada, Edo State. I achieved practical understanding of what was only theoretical trained in the University.

INTRODUCTION Produced wellhead fluids are complex mixture of different compounds of hydrogen and carbon, all with different vapor pressures, and other physical characteristics. As a well stream flows from the hot, high pressure petroleum reservoir, it experiences pressure and temperature reductions. Gases evolve from the liquids and the well stream changes in character. The job of a production facility is to separate the well stream into three components, typically called phases OIL GAS WATER And process these phases into some marketable products or dispose of them in an environmentally acceptable manner. Separators are used to separate gas from liquid or water from oil. Usually the separated gas is saturated with water vapor and must be dehydrated to an acceptable level. This is normally done in a glycol dehydrator. The oil and emulsion from the separators must be treated to remove water. Most oil contracts specify a maximum percent of basic sediment and water (BS&W) that can be in crude. Typical direct-fired heater-treaters are used for removing water from the oil and emulsion being treated. Water treating can be done in horizontal or vertical skimmer vessels, floatation units, cross-flow coalesces/separators and hydro cyclones. The water that is produced with crude oil can be disposed of overboard in most off shores areas, or evaporated from pits in some locations onshore. Any solids produced with the well stream must also be separated, cleaned, and disposed off in a manner that does not violate environmental criteria. Facilities may include sedimentation basins or tanks, hydro cyclones, filters, etc. Production facilities must also accommodate accurate measuring and sampling of the crude oil, done automatically by Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) unit.

CHAPTER ONE
GAS WELLS Most oil wells in the early stages of their lives flow naturally to the surface and are called flowing wells. Flowing production means that the pressure at the well bottom is sufficient to overcome the sum of losses occurring along the flow path to the separator. When this criterion is not met, natural flow ends and the well die. Wells may die for two main reasons either their flowing bottom hole pressure drops below the total pressure losses in the well, or the opposite happens and pressure losses in the well become greater than the bottom hole pressure needed for moving the well stream to the surface. The first case occurs when a gradual decrease in reservoir pressure takes place because of the removal of fluids from the underground reservoir. The second case involves an increasing flow resistance in the well generally caused by (a) An increase in the density of the flowing fluid as a result of decreased gas production or (b) Various mechanical problems like a small tubing size, down whole restrictions, etc. Surface conditions, such as separator pressure or flow line size, also directly impact total pressure losses and can prevent m well from flowing. Artificial lifting methods are used to produce fluids from wells already dead or to increase the production rate from flowing wells; and several lifting mechanisms are available to choose from. One widely used type of artificial lift method uses a pump set below the liquid level in the well to increase the pressure so as to overcome flowing pressure losses that occur along the flow path to the surface. Other lifting methods use compressed gas, injected periodically below the liquid present in the well tubing and use the expansion energy of the gas to displace a liquid slug to the surface. The mechanism works on a completely different principle: instead of increasing the pressure in the well, flowing pressure losses are decreased by a continuous injection of high pressure gas

into the well stream. This enables the actual bottom hole pressure to move well fluids to the surface.

Preparing the Well for Installation

GAS PROPERTIES The ability to calculate the performance of a gas producing system, including reservoir and the piping system, requires knowledge of many gas properties at various pressures and temperatures. If the natural gas is in contact with liquids, such as condensate or water, the effect of the liquids on gas properties must be evaluated IDEAL GASES The understanding of the behaviors of gases with respect to pressure and temperature changes is made clear by first considering the behavior of gases at conditions near standard conditions of pressure and temperature; that is: P = 14.7 psia = 101.325 kPa (SPE uses 100kPa) T = 60F = 520R = 288.72K (SPE) uses 288K At these conditions the gas is aid to behave ideally, and most of the early gases was conducted at conditions approaching these conditions. An ideal gas is defined as one in which: (1) The volume occupied by the molecule is small compared to the total gas volume (2) All molecular collisions are elastic and (3) There are no attractive or repulsive forces among the molecules. The basis for describing ideal gas behavior comes from the combination of some of the so-called gas laws proposed by early experiments. Early Gas Laws Boyles Law. Boyle observed experimentally that the volume of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the pressure for a given weight or mass of gas when temperature is constant. This may be expressed as V 1 \ P or PV = constant

Charles Law. While working with gases at low pressure, Charles observed that the volume occupied by a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature, or VT or V \ T = constant.

Avogadros Law. Avogadros law states that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. As any amount of solids can reduce the life of your system (except for gas lift), it is important to remove as much as you can prior to Start-up. You need to ensure that you displace the well to the lowest sand content as possible, to the smallest particle size Possible and at velocities that will effectively transport solids. Some of the methods being used are described as follows: Tubing Bailer: Stroking a large tubing pump-like bailer in the Vertical section of the well with tailpipe hanging below in the Horizontal section pumps the sand to surface. Shallow wells with long horizontal sections require multiple replace outs of the pump, but was the cheapest cleanout method. Tubing Driven PCP: Rotating the tubing turns a bit and PCP effectively lifts sand and fluid to surface, but requires high torque tubular (buttress thread). Dual Concentric Coiled Tubing with Jet Pump: Nowsco (Canada) has developed a 2,100 m (6,900 ft) concentric CT system where the power fluid is pumped down the inner CT to power a jet pump. Sand and wellbore fluids are produced up the annulus between the two coil tubing strings. This continuous system is used mainly for high rate long horizontal section well. Gas Lift Gas lifting uses natural gas compressed at the surface and injected in the well stream at some down hole point. In continuous flow gas lift, a steady rate of gas is injected in the well tubing, aerating the liquid and thus reducing the pressure losses occurring along the flow path. Due to this reduction in flow resistance of the well tubing, the wells original bottom

hole pressure becomes sufficient to move the gas/liquid mixture to the surface and the well starts to flow again. Therefore continuous flow gas lifting can be considered as the continuation of flowing production. In intermittent gas lift, gas is injected periodically into the tubing string whenever a sufficient length of liquid has accumulated at the well bottom. A relatively high volume of gas injected below the column pushes that column to the surface as a slug. Gas injection is then interrupted until a new liquid slug of the proper column length builds up again. Production of well liquids, therefore, is done by cycles. The plunger-assisted version of intermittent gas lift uses a special free plunger travelling in the well tubing to separate the upward-moving liquid slug from the gas below it. These versions of gas lift physically displace the accumulated liquids from the well, a mechanism totally different from continuous flow gas lifting. GAS LIFT SURFACE FACILITIES (Figure 1.1) shows the main elements of a surface gas lift system, beginning with production at the wellhead and ending with the injection of gas into the casing annulus or tubing. Starting at the wellhead, produced fluids travel first to the separator. The separator gas is usually re-used as lift gas. If more gas is produced than is needed for gas lift, the excess gas is either sold or re-injected into the formation. Moving downstream, there is a point where outside supply may be added to the system if the gas from the separator is not sufficient to meet the demand. Both the separator gas and the outside makeup gas flow through a scrubber, where impurities are removed. The gas next moves to the compressor, where gas pressure is raised to desired levels. The compressor must provide the appropriate discharge pressure and volume needed at both average and peak rates. Some of the gas reaching the compressor is normally used as fuel. Downstream of the compressor, gas is metered and various controls are introduced before the gas is injected into the annulus. In the case of continuous injection, the control is normally a choke in series with a pressure regulator. For intermittent gas injection, a time-cycle controller or choke is the most common form of control.

GAS LIFT SURFACE FACILITIES It is clear that the surface system consists of a number of individual components, each of which must be designed to provide the quantities and peak demands of gas for the gas lift system at the desired injection pressures. It is also easy to see that the ideal gas lift system, especially with respect to the compressor operation, is one that has a constant suction pressure and constant discharge pressure on the compressor. This is easy to achieve in continuous flow operations, because of the continuous supply of gas available from the separator and because of the need to continuously inject gas. Intermittent systems are more complicated with intermittent injection and production - the duration of which may vary for each well. Control is more difficult with time-cycle control than for choke control because with the choke, the annulus serves as a storage chamber between lift cycles. Data Collection The first step in designing surface facilities for a gas lift installation is to collect the following data: l Number and location of wells requiring gas lift l Gas lift valve design for each well l Whether continuous or intermittent injection will be used l Gas volumes needed (along with estimates of peak demand) l Availability of gas supply from the separator or external supply l Location of sales gas lines l Pressure required at the point of injection into the well l Pressure of the separator or supply gas l Sizing of the compressor l Auxiliary control and metering system required for the surface system. Calculating Compressor Horsepower The compressor is a major component of a gas lift system. Compressors are available in many different sizes and horsepower ratings to handle different gas lift operating conditions. An approximation for determining a compressors brake horsepower (bhp), is given by the equation (1) where n = number of stages Q = gas throughput capacity, MMCFD (106SCF/D) (Pdischarge/Psuction) = overall absolute compression ratio

1.05 =correction factor for pressure drop and gas cooling between stages (For a single-stage compressor, the correction factor reduces to 1.0) The quantity , which represents the absolute compression ratio per stage, should not be greater than 4. Example: Find the horsepower needed to move 2500 MCFD (2.5 MMCFD) through a 2-stage compressor with 50 psi suction pressure and 200 psi discharge pressure. First, find the absolute compression ratio per stage: Continue with Equation 1 as follows: bhp = 1.05x 23 x 2 x 2 x 2.5 = 241.5 hp => use a 250 hp compressor To solve the problem using a single stage compressor, the solution would be: bhp = 1.00 x 23 x 1 x 2.5 .4 = 230 hp.

Design

Safety

Factors

For the surface gas lift system to have enough capacity, it is customary to estimate a mainline pressure that is approximately 100 psi higher than is called for in the design. This additional pressure will accommodate unexpected line losses. In addition, the compressor delivery volume is usually increased by10% to account for volume losses and the fuel needed for compression. SUMMARY OF DESIGN PROCEDURES We may summarize the procedure for designing a surface system for gas lift installation as follows: 1. Begin by laying out the entire surface system, including the wells, gathering lines, stock tanks, separators, and other items of equipment that materially affect gas lift operations. 2. Specify the wells that will use either continuous or intermittent gas lift. Also consider the time during which each well will use gas lift. 3. Design the gas lift system for each well, specifying the pressures, the volume, the cycles, and the expected life of the gas lift operation for that well. This is a key element of the design because it provides the pressures, volumes, and cycles to which the system must respond over time.

4. Make production estimates, including the gas volumes and pressures that will be available from the separator. These volumes and pressures serve as input for the compressor calculations. 5. Specify the gas sales and makeup volumes needed, along with their availability. 6. Design the balance of the surface system, including the gathering lines and the control system. 7. Design the system compressor. A reasonably accurate measure of the required horsepower can be calculated; however, it is advisable to discuss these estimates with the manufacturer to ensure that the final design will meet the needs of the gas lift system. 8. Finally, remember to include a volume safety factor of 10% and a pressure safety factor of 100 psi. This procedure can be used in a preliminary design of a gas lift system. This preliminary design should be reviewed with the representatives of a gas lift equipment manufacturer. The optimized final design will be one that satisfies all the requirements of the system without being over-designed.

Comparison of Lift Methods Although there are some other types of artificial lift known, their importance is negligible compared to those just mentioned. Thus, there are a multitude of choices available to an Engineer when selecting the type of lift to be used. Some of the possible types may be ruled out by field conditions such as Well depth, Production rate Fluid properties, etc. Still in general, more than one lifts systems turns out to be technically feasible. It is then the production engineers responsibility to select the type of lift that provides the most profitable way of producing the desired liquid volume from the given well(s). After a decision is made concerning the lifting method to be applied, a complete design of the installation for initial and future conditions should follow.

WELL HEAD AND MANIFOLD The production system begins at the wellhead, which should include at least one choke, unless the well is on artificial lift. Most of the pressure drop between the well flowing tubing pressure (FTP) and the initial separator operating pressure occurs across this choke. On offshore facilities and other high-risk situations, an automatic shutdown valve should be installed on the wellhead. Block valves are needed so that maintenance can be performed on the choke if there is a long flow line. Whenever flows from two or more wells are commingled in a central facility, it is necessary to install a manifold to allow flow from any one well to be produced into any of the bulk or test production system.

Well Selection Before taking fluid samples, it is essential to follow proper well selection and conditioning procedures. This includes sampling wells at the appropriate stage of production. We may sample non-retrograde gas reservoirs at any time during their production. We may sample retrograde reservoirs periodically throughout their lives as well, but only those samples taken before reservoir pressure falls below the dew point line are representative of the original reservoir fluid. Because windowed cell studies are necessary to determine whether a reservoir fluid is retrograde or wet gas, all wells that produce liquid hydrocarbons should be sampled early in their production lives. In large reservoirs, fluid composition may vary with location. Samples should therefore come from several wells throughout the field. Gas wells, with few exceptions, are sampled at the surface (unlike some oil wells, which are sampled down hole). The wells selected for sampling must have relatively constant production rates, without periodic interruptions due to fluid loading. They must have properly sized tubing strings, pumps or other lifting devices to keep them Unloaded at sampling conditions. (Sampling conditions may not necessarily be identical to producing conditions.)

This ensures that the sample container contents are equivalent to the fluid entering the well from the reservoir. The wells being sampled must have appropriate sample points, either at the wellhead (for dry gas wells), or at the separator (for wells that produce liquids). These sample points should be located in pipe sections having a constant flow rate and minimum turbulence. Gas samples should come from taps located at the top of a horizontal pipe section, and NGL samples should come from vertical pipe sections if NGL is collected from a horizontal section, a static mixer should be installed upstream of the sample point. Liquid-producing wells must have adequate metering capacity to allow for accuracy in subsequent mathematical or physical recombination. To achieve these objectives, it may be necessary to set a test separator at the well Prior to sampling. The engineer should review well logs and completion records to confirm that the sample comes from the expected source. The individual components of the electrical submersible centrifugal pumping are listed as follows: Motor: The electrical submersible motor is usually a 3-phase, induction type, which is oil-filled for cooling and lubrication. A high starting torque enables the motor to reach full load operating speed of approximately 3500 RPM in less than 15 cycles thus reducing drag on the power supply. The well fluid serves as the cooling agent. Therefore, the unit is installed above the perforations. Protector: The protector is located between the pump and motor. Its main purpose is to isolate the motor from the well fluid. The protector is designed to allow pressure equalization between the intake pressure and the motor's internal pressure. The unit will permit expansion or contraction of the motor oil due to thermal expansion. Two mechanical seals provide dual protection as a barrier against fluid migrating along the shaft. The protector also houses a marine-type thrust bearing which absorbs axial loading from the pump. Intake (and perhaps a Gas Separator): The pump intake is a bolt-on section between the protector and the pump. It may also have a gas separator which is designed to separate a greater portion of any free gas in the produced fluid.

Pump: Submersible pumps are multi-staged centrifugal pumps. Each stage consists of a rotating impeller and a stationary diffuser. The type of stage used determines the volume of fluid that the pump can deliver. The number of stages determines the total head generated and horsepower required. Each stage contributes its share of the total head developed. Power Cable: Power to the motor is transmitted by an electrical cable especially designed for oil field application. A range of conductor sizes permits efficient matching to motor requirements. Round and flat cables are available, and flat cable is usually used where clearance is a problem. Figure 1.3 Submersible Centrifugal Pumping Unit.

CHAPTER TWO
INITIAL SEPARATION PROCESS Because of the multi component nature of the produced fluid, the higher the pressure at which the initial separation occurs, the more liquid will be obtained in the separator. This liquid contains some light components that vaporize in the stock tank downstream of the separator. If the pressure for initial separation is too high, too many light components will stay in the liquid phase at the separator and be lost to gas phase at the tank. If the pressure is too low, not as many of these light components will be lost to the gas phase. Figure 2 This phenomenon can be calculated using flash equilibrium techniques. The tendency of any one component in the process stream to flash to the vapor phase depends on its partial pressure. The partial pressure of a component in a vessel is defined as the number of molecules of that component in the vapor space divided by the total number of molecules of all components in the vapor space times the pressure in the vessel. Thus, if the pressure in the vessel is high, the partial pressure for the component will be relatively high and the molecules of that component will tend toward the liquid phase. As the separator pressure is increased, the liquid flow rate out of the separator increases. The problem with this is that many of these molecules are the lighter hydrocarbons (methane, ethane, and propane), which have a strong tendency to flash to the gas state at stock-tank conditions (atmospheric pressure). In the stock-tank, the presence of these large numbers of molecules creates a low partial pressure for the intermediate-range hydrocarbons (butanes, pentane, and heptanes) whose flashing tendency at stock tank conditions is very susceptible to small changes in partial pressure. Thus by keeping the lighter molecules in the feed to the stock tank, we manage to capture a small amount of them as liquids, but we lose to the gas phase many more of the intermediate-range molecules. That is why beyond

some optimum point there is actually a decrease in stock-tank liquids by increasing the separator operating pressure. 2.1 Vertical Two-Phase Separators Figure 2.1 is a simplified schematic of a typical vertical separator. In this configuration the flow stream enters the vessel through an inlet on the side. As for the horizontal separator, an inlet diverter does the initial gross separation of liquid and gas. The liquid flows down to the liquid collection section of the vessel and through this section to the liquid outlet. As the mixture reaches equilibrium at the separator pressure and temperature, evolved gas bubbles raise upward, counter to the direction of the liquid Flow, and eventually reach the vapor space. The level controller and liquid dump valve operate the same as in a horizontal separator, sensing liquid level and adjusting it accordingly. In a vertical separator, the gas flows over the inlet diverter and then vertically upward toward the gas outlet, rather than horizontally. In the gravity-settling section the liquid drops fall vertically, counter to the upward gas flow. Upon reaching the top of the vessel, the gas goes through the coalescing/mist eliminator section before it leaves the vessel, extracting additional liquids. Pressure is maintained as in a horizontal separator, using a Vertical Two-Phase Separators pressure controller to adjust gas flow and regulate vessel pressure.

2.2 Horizontal Two-Phase Separators Figure 2.2 is a simplified schematic of a typical horizontal separator. The fluid enters the separator and hits an inlet diverter which produces a sudden change in the fluid's velocity and direction. The initial gross separation of liquid and vapor occurs at this point. The force of gravity causes the heavier liquid droplets to fall out of the gas stream to the bottom of the vessel, where the liquid is collected. This liquid collection section holds the liquid during the appropriate retention time required to let dissolved gas evolve out of the oil and rise to the vapor space. This section also provides a surge volume, if necessary, to handle intermittent slugs of liquid. The separated liquid then leaves the vessel through the liquid dump

valve, which is regulated by a level controller. The level controller senses changes in liquid level and controls the dump valve accordingly. The separated gas flows over the inlet diverter and then horizontally through the gravity-settling section above the liquid. As the gas flows through this section, small drops of liquid that were entrained in the gas and not separated by the inlet diverter are separated out by gravity and fall to the gas-liquid interface. Some of the drops are of such small diameter that they are not easily separated in the gravity-settling section. However, before the gas leaves the vessel it passes through a coalescing section or mist eliminator. In this section, metal vanes, wire mesh, or closely spaced plates are used to coalesce the very small droplets of liquid and cause them to fall into the liquid-collection section. The pressure in the separator is maintained by a pressure controller. The pressure controller senses changes in the pressure in the separator and sends a signal to either open or close the pressure control valve accordingly. By Controlling the rate at which gas leaves the vapor space of the vessel the pressure in the vessel is controlled. Normally, horizontal separators are operated half full of liquid to maximize the surface area of the gas-liquid interface. However, in places such as the Middle East, where very large separators are found, these vessels may be operated considerably less than half full. Comparison of Two-Phase Separator Types Horizontal separators are normally more efficient at handling large volumes of gas. This is because in the gravity settling section of the vessel the liquid droplets fall perpendicular to the direction of gas flow and thus are more easily settled out of the continuous gas phase. Also, since the gas-oil interface surface area is larger in a horizontal separator than a vertical separator of the same capacity, it is easier for the gas bubbles, which come out of solution as the liquid approaches equilibrium, to reach the vapor space. So, speaking strictly from a gas-liquid separation standpoint, horizontal separators would be preferred. However, they do have several drawbacks that could lead to preference for a vertical separator in certain situations.

Horizontal separators are not as efficient as vertical separators in the handling of produced solids. The liquid dump of a vertical separator can be placed at the center of the bottom head so that solids will not build up in the separator but will be flushed to the next vessel in the facility. Alternatively, a drain could be placed at this location so that the sand, clay, and so forth, could be; removed periodically, while clean liquid left the vessel at a slightly higher elevation; In a horizontal vessel, it is necessary to place several drains along the length of the vessel, spaced at very close intervals. Attempts to lengthen the distance between drains, by providing sand jets in the vicinity of each drain to fluidize the solids while the drains are in operation, are expensive and have been only marginally successful in field operations; Horizontal vessels require more plan area than a vertical vessel with the same capacity. While this may not be of importance at a land location it could be very important on offshore production platforms, where space is at a premium. On the other hand, horizontal vessels may fit more easily in cramped lower decks and underneath heliports; Small and moderate size horizontal vessels generally have less liquid surge capacity, that is, they handle large slugs of liquid less efficiently than vertical separators. The geometry of a horizontal vessel requires any high-liquid-level shutdown device to be located close to the normal operating level. In a vertical separator the shutdown could be placed much higher, allowing the level controller and dump valve more time to react to the surge. In addition, surges in horizontal vessels can create internal waves that might activate a high-level sensor.

All of these factors cause the horizontal separator to function erratically when slugs of liquid are present in the flow stream. These problems are not necessarily severe in the case of large horizontal separators; particularly those operated less than half full. It should be pointed out that vertical vessels also have some drawbacks that are not process-related but must be considered in making a selection. These are: The relief valve and some of the controls may be difficult to service without special ladders and access platforms.

 The vertical vessel may have to be removed from a production equipment package (often called a "skid") when height restrictions for overland truck transportation require it to be shipped horizontally. In general, however, horizontal vessels are the most economical for normal oil-gas separation, particularly where there may be problems-with emulsions, foam, or high gas-oil ratios. Vertical vessels work most effectively in either low gas-oil ratio applications or in very high gas-oil ratio applications (such as compressor scrubbers) where only liquid mists are being removed from the gas. 2.3 Horizontal Three-Phase Separators Three-stage separation Three phase separators in the oil and gas production industry are used to separate gas, oil and water phases. Three-phase separation involves gas/liquid separation like two phases, but also involves liquid/liquid separation. This section concentrates on the design concepts involved in liquid/liquid separation. When oil and water are mixed with some intensity and then allowed to settle, a layer of relatively clean free water will appear at the bottom. The growth of this water layer with time will follow a curve as shown in Figure 2.3 After a period of time, ranging anywhere from three minutes to twenty minutes, the change in the water height will be negligible. The water fraction, obtained from gravity settling, is called "free water." It is normally beneficial to separate the free water before attempting to treat the remaining oil and emulsion layers. Flow to the separator may be directly from a producing well or wells. In this case, significant amounts of gas may be present and are separated from the oil. Three phase separators are designed to separate the free water phase from the oil and the gas phase from the oil. If the flow to the separator originates in upstream separators operating at higher pressures, then the three-phase separator will need to handle only the flash gases. Separators in this service are often called free water knockouts. The basic design aspects of three phase separation are identical to those discussed for two phase separation. The only additions are that more concern is placed on liquid-liquid settling rates, and that some means of removing the

Free water must be added. Because of the multi component nature of the produced fluid, it can be shown by flash calculations that the more light components will be stabilized into the liquid phase. This can be understood qualitatively by realizing that in a stage separation process the light hydrocarbon molecules that flash are at relatively high pressure, keeping the partial pressure of the intermediate hydrocarbons lower at each stage.

Figure 2.3(a) is a schematic of a horizontal three-phase separator. The fluid enters the separator and hits an inlet diverter. This sudden change in velocity and direction is responsible for the initial gross separation of liquid and vapor, as explained in the discussion on two-phase separators. In some designs, the inlet diverter contains a down comer that directs the liquid flow below the gas-oil interface and to the vicinity of the oil-water interface. The size of the liquid-collecting section of the vessel must provide sufficient time for the oil and emulsion to form a layer or "oil pad" at the top. The free water settles to the bottom. Figure 2.3(a) shows a typical horizontal separator with an interface controller and weir The weir maintains the oil level and the interface controller maintains the water level. The oil is skimmed over the weir and the level of the oil Downstream of the weir is controlled by a level controller that operates the oil dump valve. The produced water flows from the vessel upstream of the oil weir. An interface level controller senses the height of the oil-water Interface. The controller sends a signal to the water dump valve, thus allowing the correct amount of water to leave the vessel so that the oil-water interface is maintained at the design height. Evolved gas flows horizontally through the vessel and out through a mist eliminator to a pressure controlled valve that maintains vessel pressure. The level of the gas-oil interface can vary depending on the relative importance of gas-liquid separation. The most common configuration is a vessel that is operated half full, giving the maximum amount of gas-oil surface area. Figure 2.3(b) shows an alternate configuration known as a "bucket and weir" design.

This design eliminates the need for a liquid interface controller. Both the oil and water flow over weirs where level control is accomplished by a simple displacer float. The oil overflows the oil weir into an oil bucket where its level is controlled by a level controller that operates the oil dump valve. The water flows under the oil bucket and then over a water weir. The level downstream of this weir is controlled by a level controller that operates the water dump valve. The height of the oil weir controls the liquid level in the vessel. The difference in height of the oil and water weirs controls the thickness of the oil layer as it floats on top of the water layer, due to specific gravity differences. It is critical to the operation of the vessel that the water weir height be sufficiently below the oil weir height so that the oil pad thickness allows sufficient oil retention time. If the water weir is too low and the difference in specific gravity is not as great as anticipated, then the oil pad could grow in thickness to a point where oil will be swept under the oil box and out the water outlet. Normally, either the oil or the water weir is adjustable so that changes in oil-water specific gravities or flow rates can be accommodated. If we compare these two types of horizontal three-phase separators, we see that interface control has the advantage of being easily adjustable to handle unexpected changes in the specific gravity or flow rates of oil or water. However, in heavy oil applications or where large amounts of emulsion or paraffin are anticipated, the interface level may be difficult to sense. In such a case, the bucket and weir design is recommended.

Water Droplet Size in Oil It is difficult to predict the water droplet size which must be settled out of the oil phase to coincide with the rather loose definition of "free oil." Unless laboratory or nearby field data is available, good results have been obtained by sizing the oil pad such that water droplets 500 microns and above settle out. If this criterion is met, the emulsion to be treated by downstream equipment should contain less than 5 to 10 percent water. In heavy crude oil systems, it is sometimes necessary to design for 1000 micron water droplets to settle. In such cases, the emulsion may contain as much as 20 to 30 percent water. Oil Droplet Size in Water It can be seen that the separation of oil droplets from the water is easier than the separation of water droplets from the oil. The oil's viscosity is often on the order of 5 to 20 times that of water. Therefore, the terminal settling velocity of an oil droplet in water is much larger than that of a water droplet in oil. The primary purpose of three-phase separation is to prepare the oil for further treating. Field experience indicates that oil content in the produced water from a three phase separator, sized for water removal from oil, can be expected to be between a few hundred and 2,000 mg/l. This water will require further treating prior to disposal and the reader should refer to the presentation on Treating Oil from Produced Water. Occasionally, the viscosity of the water phase may be as high as, or higher, than the liquid hydrocarbon phase viscosity. For example, large glycol dehydration systems usually have a three phase flash separator. The viscosity of the glycol/water phase may be rather high. In cases like this, the settling equation should be applied to removing oil droplets of approximately 200 microns from the water phase. If the retention time of the water phase is significantly less than the oil phase, then the vessel size should be checked for oil removal from the water. For these reasons, the equations are provided so the water phase may be checked. However, the separation of oil from the water phase rarely governs the vessel size, and may be ignored for most cases.

Retention Time A certain amount of oil storage is required in the separator to ensure that the oil reaches equilibrium and flashed gas is liberated. An additional amount of storage is required to ensure that the free water has time to coalesce into droplet sizes sufficient to fall in accordance with Equation (1). It is common to use retention times ranging from three minutes to thirty minutes, depending upon laboratory or field data. If this information is not available, an oil retention time of five minutes is suggested for design. Generally, the retention time must be increased as the oil gravity or viscosity increases. Similarly, a certain amount of water storage is required to ensure that most of the droplets of oil entrained in the water have sufficient time to coalesce and rise to the oil/water interface. It is common to use retention times for the water phase ranging from three minutes to thirty minutes depending upon laboratory or field data. If this information is not available, a water retention time of five minutes is recommended for design.

SELECTION CRITERIA Horizontal separators are normally more efficient at handling large volumes of gas than vertical separators. In the gravity-settling section of the vessel, the liquid droplets fall perpendicular to the gas flow, and, thus, are more easily settled out of the gas-continuous phase. Also, since the interface area is larger in a horizontal separator than a vertical separator, it is easier for the gas bubbles, which come out of solution as the liquid approaches equilibrium, to reach the vapor space. Thus, from a pure gas/liquid separation viewpoint, horizontal separators would be preferred. However, they do have several drawbacks, which could lead to a preference for a vertical separator in certain situations. Horizontal separators are not as good as vertical separators in handling solids. The liquid dump of a vertical separator can be placed at the center of the bottom head so that, solids will not build up in the separator but continue to the next vessel in the process. As an alternate, a drain could be placed at this location so that solids could be disposed off periodically while liquid leaves the vessel at a slightly higher elevation. In a horizontal vessel, it is necessary to place several drains along the length of the vessel. Since the solids will have an angle of repose of 45 to 60, the drains must be spaced

at very close intervals. Attempts to lengthen the distance between drains, by providing sand jets in the vicinity of each drain to fluidize the solids while the drains are in operation, are expensive and have been only marginally successful in field operations. Horizontal vessels require more plan area (horizontal cross-section) to perform the same separation as vertical vessels. While this may not be of importance at an onshore location, it could be very important offshore. If several separators are used, however, this disadvantage may be overcome by stacking one horizontal separator on top of another. Most horizontal vessels have less liquid-surge capacity. For a given change in liquid surface elevation, there is typically a larger increase in liquid volume for a horizontal separator than for a vertical separator sized for the same flow rate. However, the geometry of most horizontal vessels causes any high-level shutdown device to be located close to the normal operating level. In very large diameter (greater than 1.8 m (6 ft)) horizontal vessels and in vertical vessels, the shutdown could be placed much higher, allowing the level controller and dump valve more time to react to the surge. In addition, surges in horizontal vessels could create internal waves, which could activate a high level sensor prematurely. Care should be exercised when selecting small-diameter horizontal separators. The level controller and level switch elevations must be considered. The vessel must have a sufficiently large diameter so that the level switches may be spaced far enough apart, vertically, to avoid operating problems. This is particularly important if surges in the flow or slugs of liquids are expected to enter the separator. It should be pointed out that vertical vessels have some drawbacks which are not process-related and which must be considered in making a selection. For example, the relief valve and some of the controls may be difficult to service without special ladders and platforms. The vessel may have to be removed from a skid for trucking due to height restrictions. Overall, horizontal vessels are most economical for normal oil-gas separation, particularly where there may be problems with emulsions, foam, or high gas-oil ratios (GOR). Vertical vessels work most effectively in lowGOR applications. They are also used in some very high-GOR applications,

such as scrubbers in which only fluid mists are being removed from the gas and where extra surge capacity is needed to allow a shutdown to activate before liquid is carried out the gas outlet (e.g., compressor suction scrubber). The advantages of horizontal separators are: They are generally more efficient at handling large volumes of gas; They fit more easily in cramped deck space with a low ceiling; Their safety relief valves and controls are generally more accessible (except in the case of very large vessels) ; They may not require disassembly for overland truck transportation. The disadvantages of horizontal separators are: They are generally not as efficient as vertical separators in the handling of produced solids; They require more plan area than a vertical vessel with the same capacity and this could be a problem when space is at a premium; They generally have less liquid surge capacity. 2.4 Vertical Three-Phase Separators The flow stream enters the vessel through the side as in the horizontal separator, and once again the inlet diverter separates the bulk of the gas Figure 2.4 a down comer is required to transmit the liquid through the oilgas interface so as not to disturb the oil-skimming action taking place. A chimney is needed to equalize the gas pressure between the lower liquidcollection section and the upper gravity-settling section. The spreader, or down comer outlet, is located beneath the oil-water interface. As the oil rises from this point, any free water trapped within the oil phase separates out. The water droplets flow downward and any oil droplets trapped in the water phase tend to raise countercurrent to the water flow. Sometimes a cone bottom three-phase separator is used. This design is applicable when you anticipate that sand production will be a major problem. Normally, the cone is shaped at an angle between 45 and 60

because produced sand has a tendency to rest on steel at angles less than 45. Figure 2.41 If a cone is installed it could be part of the pressure-containing walls of the vessel or, for structural reasons, it could be installed inside the vessel cylinder. In such a case, a gas-equalizing line would have to be installed to Insure that the vapor behind the cone was always in pressure equilibrium with the vapor space. The first method (a) Is for level control alone. A regular displacer float is used to control the gas-oil interface and to regulate a control valve for dumping oil from the oil section. An interface float is used to control the oil water interface and to regulate a water outlet control valve. Because no internal baffling or weirs are used, this system is the easiest to fabricate and is best for handling sand and solids production. Method (b) uses a weir to maintain the gas-oil interface level in a constant position. This results in a better separation of water from the oil, since all the oil must raise to the height of the oil weir before leaving the vessel. Its disadvantages are that the oil box takes up space and increases the cost of fabrication. In addition, collected sediment can be difficult to drain from the oil box and a separate low-level shutdown may be required to guard against the oil dump valve failing. The third method (c) uses two weirs, which eliminates the need for an interface float. The interface level Figure 2.42 is controlled by the height of the external water weir relative to the oil weir or outlet height. This is similar to the Bucket and weir design for horizontal separators. The advantage of this system is that it eliminates the need for an interface level control; the disadvantage is that it requires additional external piping and space. As in two-phase separation, in three-phase separation the flow geometry in a horizontal vessel is more favorable from a process standpoint. However, as before, there may be no process-related reasons for selecting a vertical Vessel for a specific application. Figure 2.43(a) and Figure 2.43 (b) show the three different methods of control that are often used on vertical three-phase separators. POTENTIAL OPERATING PROBLEMS Foamy Crude

The major causes of foam are impurities, other than water, in the crude oil that are impractical to remove before the stream reaches the separator. Foam presents no problem within a separator if the internal design assures adequate time or sufficient coalescing surface for the foam to "break." Foaming in a separating vessel is a threefold problem. Mechanical control of liquid level is aggravated because any control device must deal with essentially three phases instead of two. Foam has a large volume-to-weight ratio; therefore, it can occupy a large amount of the vessel space, otherwise used for liquid collection or gravity settling. In an uncontrolled foam bank, it becomes impossible to remove separated gas or degassed oil from the vessel without entraining some of the foamy material in either the liquid or gas outlets. It is possible to determine foaming tendencies of oil with laboratory tests. Service companies can run laboratory tests on oil samples to qualitatively determine oils foaming tendency. One such test is ASTM D 892, which involves bubbling air through the oil. Alternately, the oil may be saturated with its associated gas and then expanded in a glass container. This second test more closely models the actual separation process. Both of these tests are qualitative. There is no standard method for measuring the amount of foam produced or the difficulty in breaking the foam. Foaming is not possible to predict ahead of time without laboratory tests. However, foaming should be expected where CO2 is present in even small amounts (one percent to two percent). It should be noted that the amount of foam is dependent on the pressure drop to which the inlet liquid is subjected, as well as the characteristics of the liquid at separator condition. In some cases, the effect of temperature may be found to be quite spectacular. Changing the temperature at which foamy oil is separated has two opposite effects on the foam. The first effect is to change the oil viscosity. That is, an increase in temperature will decrease the oil viscosity, making it easier for the gas to escape from the oil. The second effect is to change the gas-oil equilibrium. A temperature increase will increase the amount of gas, which evolves from the oil. It is difficult to predict the effects of temperature on foaming tendencies, but some general trends can be identified. For heavy oils with a low GOR, an increase in temperature will typically decrease foaming tendencies. Similarly, for light oils with a high GOR, temperature increases typically

decrease foaming tendencies. However, for light oils with a low GOR, a temperature increase may increase foaming tendencies. Oils in this last category are typically rich in mid-range components, which will evolve to the gas phase when the temperature increases. Therefore, increasing the temperature significantly increases the gas evolution, and, thus, the foaming tendencies. Foam-depressant chemicals are available that often will do a good job in increasing the capacity of a given separator. However, in sizing a separator to handle particular crude, the use of an effective depressant should not be assumed because characteristics of the crude and of the foam may change during the life of the field. Also, the cost of foam-depressants for high-rate production may be prohibitive. Sufficient capacity should be provided in the separator to handle the anticipated production without use of a foam depressant. Ideally foam depressants are used once in operation to allow more throughput than the design capacity.

Paraffin Separator operation can be adversely affected by an accumulation of paraffin. Coalescing plates in the liquid section and mesh-pad mist extractors in the gas section are particularly prone to plugging by accumulations of paraffin. Where it is determined that paraffin is an actual or potential problem, use of vane-type or centrifugal mist extractors should be considered. Man ways, hand holes and nozzles should be provided to allow steam, solvent or other types of cleaning of the separator internals. Sand Sand can be very troublesome in separators by causing cutout of valve trim, plugging of separator internals and accumulation in the bottom of the separator. Special hard trim can minimize effects of sand on the valves. Accumulations of sand can be alleviated by the use of sand jets and drains in horizontal separators, and cone bottoms in vertical separators. Plugging of the separator internals is a problem that must be considered in the design of the separator. A design that will promote good separation and

have a minimum of traps for sand accumulation may be difficult to attain, since the design that provides the best mechanism for separating the gas, oil, and water phases probably will also provide areas for sand accumulation. A practical balance for these factors is the best solution. Carryover and Blow by Carryover and blow by are two common operating problems. Carryover occurs when free liquid escapes with the gas phase. It can be an indication of high liquid level, damage to vessel internals, foam, plugged liquid outlets, or exceeding the design rate of the vessel. Blow by occurs when free gas escapes with the liquid phase, and it can be an indication of vortexing or level control failure. This is a particularly dangerous problem. If there is a level control failure and the level dump valve is open, the gas flow entering the vessel will exit the liquid line and will have to be handled by the next vessel in the process. Unless that vessel is designed for the gas blow by condition, it can be over-pressured.

Liquid Slugs Two phase flow lines and pipelines tend to accumulate liquids in low spots in the lines. When the level of liquid in these low spots raises high enough to block the gas flow then the gas will push the liquid along the line as a slug. Depending on the flow rates, flow properties, length and diameter of the flow line, and the elevation change involved, these liquid slugs may contain large liquid volumes. Situations in which liquid slugs may occur should be identified prior to the design of a separator. The normal operating level and the high-level shutdown on the vessel must be spaced far enough apart to accommodate the anticipated slug volume. If sufficient vessel volume is not provided, then the liquid slugs will trip the high-level shutdown. When liquid slugs are anticipated, slug volume for design purposes must be established. Then the separator may be sized for liquid flow-rate capacity using the normal operating level. The location of the high-level set point may be established to provide the slug volume between the normal level and the high level. The separator size must then be checked to ensure that

sufficient gas capacity is provided even when the liquid is at the high-level set point. This check of gas capacity is particularly important for horizontal separators because, as the liquid level rises, the gas capacity is decreased. For vertical separators, sizing is easier as sufficient height for the slug volume may be added to the vessel seam-to-seam length. Often the potential size of the slug is so great that it is beneficial to install a large pipe volume upstream of the separator. The geometry of these pipes is such that they operate normally empty of liquid, but fill with liquid when the slug enters the system. This is the most common type of slug catcher used when two phase pipelines are routinely pigged.

Two-Phase vs. Three-Phase Separators

The high intermediate-stage separators are two-phase, while the lowpressure separator is three-phase. This is called a free-water knockout (FWKO) because it is designed to separate the free water from the oil and emulsion, as well as separate gas from liquid. The choice depends on the flowing characteristics of the wells. If large amounts of water are expected with the high-pressure wells, it is possible that the size of the other separator could be reduced if the high-pressure separator was three-phase. This would normally be the case for a facility where individual wells are expected to flow at different tubing pressures (FTPs). In some instances, where all wells are expected to have similar FTPs at all times, it may be advantageous to remove the free water early in the separation scheme.

Figure 1.1

Diagrams

Figure 1.2 Pumping System Components

Figure 2

Figure 2.1 a vertical two Phase separator

Figure 2.2 A Horizontal three Phase Separator

2.3 Schematic and plot showing growth of water layer with Time.

2.3(a) A Schematic showing a Horizontal three phase separator

Figure 2.3 (b) A bucket and Weir design

Figure 2.4 showing a typical configuration of vertical three phase separator

Figure 2.41 A vertical three phase separator with a cone

Figure 2.42 Interface level Control for a three phase vertical Separator.

Figure 2.43(a)

Figure 2.43(b)

CONCLUSION Oil, Gas, and Water when mixed together are in Phases but can be separated by different methods.When Separated, they are been processed.

RECOMMENDATION This report project is not to be appreciated by only Engineering and Technology Students. It can also be of great value to students or researchers in other fields.

REFERENCE Chevron Nigeria Limited, Lagos.