OVERVIEW

a.
b.

c. d. e.

Normal cell functions Gastric cells secrete HCl Nerve cells generate action potential and conduct impulses Beta cells of the pancreas Type II pneumocytes Immune system

OVERVIEW
Immunity the bodys specific protective response to a foreign agent or organism Immune system part of the bodys defense mechanism against invasion and allows a rapid response to foreign substance Genetic and cellular responses result when the immune system is activated Tolerance mechanism by which the immune system is programmed to eliminate foreign substances such as microbes, toxins, and cellular mutations but maintains the ability to accept selfantigens

OVERVIEW
Immunopathology the study of diseases that result from dysfunctions within the immune system Immune function is affected by a variety of factors 1. Central nervous system integrity 2. General physical status 3. General emotional status 4. Stress 5. Illness 6. Trauma 7. Surgery

IMMUNE SYSTEM DISORDERS

Autoimmunity - is the failure of an organism to recognize its

own constituent parts as ''self'', which allows an immune response against its own cells and tissues.

Hypersensitivity - refers to excessive, undesirable

(damaging, discomfort-producing and sometimes fatal) reactions produced by the normal immune system.

Gammopathies - abnormal proliferation of the lymphoid cells

producing immunoglobulins. Ex: hodgkins disease

Immune deficiencies -

is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious disease is compromised or entirely absent.

Primary b. Secondary
a.

ANATOMIC AND PHYSIOLOGIC OVERVIEW

1.

2.

Epitopes antigenic determinants that are present on foreign materials, initiating a series of action in a host, including the inflammatory response, the lysis of microbial agents, and the disposal of foreign toxins Bone marrow (B lymphocytes originates) Lymphoid tissues spleen, lymph nodes WBCs, antibodies Types of immunity Natural immunity or innate immunity is nonspecific and is present at birth (intact skin, phagocytes, compliment system) Acquired or adaptive immunity specific and develops after birth (humoral & Cellular immunity)

BASIC CONCEPTS
Components of the Immune System Immune cells Central immune structures: bone marrow and thymus (where immune cells are produced and mature) Peripheral immune structures: lymph nodes, spleen (where the immune cells interact with the antigen)

BASIC CONCEPTS
Components of the Immune System Immune cells: T and B lymphocytes (primary cells), macrophages (accessory cells) which aid in processing and presentation of antigens to the lymphocytes Cytokines: molecules that form a communication link between immune cells and other tissues and organs of the body

Lymph Nodes

Figure 12.3
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Lymph Node Structure

Figure 12.4
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Other Lymphoid Organs

Several other organs contribute to lymphatic function
Spleen Thymus

Tonsils
Peyers patches
Figure 12.5
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Slide 12.9

The Spleen
Located on the left side of the abdomen
Filters blood

Destroys worn out blood cells

Forms blood cells in the fetus

Acts as a blood reservoir

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The Thymus
Located low in the throat, overlying the heart Functions at peak levels only during childhood Produces hormones (like thymosin) to program lymphocytes

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Tonsils
Small masses of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign materials Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with bacteria

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Peyers Patches

Found in the wall of the small intestine Resemble tonsils in structure Capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine

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Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)

Includes:
Peyers patches Tonsils Other small accumulations of lymphoid tissue

Acts as a guard to protect respiratory and digestive tracts

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Body Defenses
The body is constantly in contact with bacteria, fungi, and viruses (pathogens) The body has two defense systems for foreign materials
Nonspecific defense system Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders Responds immediately to protect body from foreign materials
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Body Defenses

Specific defense system

Specific defense is required for each type of invader
Also known as the immune system

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Nonspecific Body Defenses

Body surface coverings
Intact skin
Mucous membranes

Specialized human cells

Chemicals produced by the body

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Surface Membrane Barriers First Line of Defense

The skin
Physical barrier to foreign materials pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial growth Sebum is toxic to bacteria Vaginal secretions are very acidic
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Surface Membrane Barriers First Line of Defense

Stomach mucosa
Secretes hydrochloric acid Has protein-digesting enzymes

Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain lysozyme Mucus traps microogranisms in digestive and respiratory pathways
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Defensive Cells
Phagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages)
Engulfs foreign material into a vacuole Enzymes from lysosomes digest the material
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Figure 12.6b

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Macrophage attacking e-coli.

Defensive Cells

Natural killer cells

Can lyse and kill cancer cells Can destroy virusinfected cells

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Figure 12.6b

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Inflammatory Response Second Line of Defense

Triggered when body tissues are injured
Produces four cardinal signs
Redness Heat Swelling

Pain

Results in a chain of events leading to protection and healing

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Functions of the Inflammatory Response

Prevents spread of damaging agents

Disposes of cell debris and pathogens

Sets the stage for repair

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Steps in the Inflammatory Response

Figure 12.7
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Antimicrobial Chemicals
Complement
A group of at least 20 plasma proteins Activated when they encounter and attach to cells (complement fixation)
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Figure 12.8

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Antimicrobial Chemicals
Complement (continued)
Damage foreign cell surfaces Will rupture or lyse the foreign cell membrane
Figure 12.8
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Antimicrobial Chemicals

Interferon
Secreted proteins of virus-infected cells Bind to healthy cell surfaces to inhibit viruses binding

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Interferons are a family species-specific proteins synthesized by eukaryotic cells in response to viruses and a variety of natural and synthetic stimuli. There are several different interferons commonly used as therapeutics, termed alpha, beta, and gamma. These peptides are used to treat hairy cell leukemia, AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma, laryngeal papillomatosis, genital warts, and chronic granulomatous disease. Side effects include black tarry stools, blood in the urine, confusion, and loss of balance.

Fever
Abnormally high body temperature Hypothalmus heat regulation can be reset by pyrogens (secreted by white blood cells) High temperatures inhibit the release of iron and zinc from liver and spleen needed by bacteria Fever also increases the speed of tissue repair
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Specific Defense: The Immune System Third Line of Defense

Antigen specific recognizes and acts against particular foreign substances

Systemic not restricted to the initial infection site

Has memory recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens
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Types of Immunity
Humoral immunity
Antibody-mediated immunity

Cells produce chemicals for defense

Cellular immunity
Cell-mediated immunity Cells target virus infected cells
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Antigens (Nonself)
Any substance capable of exciting the immune system and provoking an immune response Examples of common antigens
Foreign proteins Nucleic acids Large carbohydrates

Some lipids
Pollen grains Microorganisms
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Self-Antigens
Human cells have many surface proteins Our immune cells do not attack our own proteins Our cells in another persons body can trigger an immune response because they are foreign
Restricts donors for transplants
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Allergies
Many small molecules (called haptens or incomplete antigens) are not antigenic, but link up with our own proteins
The immune system may recognize and respond to a protein-hapten combination The immune response is harmful rather than protective because it attacks our own cells
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Cells of the Immune System

Lymphocytes
Originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the bone marrow T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the thymus

Macrophages
Arise from monocytes Become widely distributed in lymphoid organs
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Activation of Lymphocytes

Figure 12.9
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Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response

B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to a specific antigen

The binding event activates the lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection

A large number of clones are produced (primary humoral response)
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Humoral (Antibody Mediated) Immune Response

Most B cells become plasma cells
Produce antibodies to destroy antigens Activity lasts for four or five days

Some B cells become long-lived memory cells (secondary humoral response)

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Humoral Immune Response

Figure 12.10
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Active Immunity
Your B cells encounter antigens and produce antibodies Active immunity can be naturally or artificially acquired
Figure 12.12
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Passive Immunity
Antibodies are obtained from someone else
Conferred naturally from a mother to her fetus
Conferred artificially from immune serum or gamma globulin

Immunological memory does not occur Protection provided by borrowed antibodies

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Antibodies (Immunoglobulins) (Igs)

Soluble proteins secreted by B cells (plasma cells) Carried in blood plasma Capable of binding specifically to an antigen

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Antibody Classes
Antibodies of each class have slightly different roles
Five major immunoglobulin classes (Do Not Need to know!)
IgM can fix complement

IgA found mainly in mucus

IgD important in activation of B cell IgG can cross the placental barrier IgE involved in allergies
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Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response

Antigens must be presented by macrophages to an immunocompetent T cell (antigen presentation)
T cells must recognize nonself and self (double recognition)

After antigen binding, clones form as with B cells, but different classes of cells are produced
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Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response

Figure 12.15

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T Cell Clones
Cytotoxic T cells
Specialize in killing infected cells
Insert a toxic chemical (perforin)

Helper T cells
Recruit other cells to fight the invaders

Interact directly with B cells

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T Cell Clones
Suppressor T cells
Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and B cells Stop the immune response to prevent uncontrolled activity

A few members of each clone are memory cells

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Summary of the Immune Response

Figure 12.16
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Organ Transplants and Rejection

Major types of grafts
Autografts tissue transplanted from one site to another on the same person

Isografts tissue grafts from an identical person (identical twin)

Allografts tissue taken from an unrelated person Xenografts tissue taken from a different animal species
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Organ Transplants and Rejection

Autografts and isografts are ideal donors Xenografts are never successful Allografts are more successful with a closer tissue match

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BASIC CONCEPTS
Components of the Immune System Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) membrane molecules that help the immune system recognise the self from the non-self HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigens) are human MHC proteins that were first detected on white blood cells; play a role in transplant rejection and are detected in immunologic tests

BASIC CONCEPTS
Major Histocompatibility Complex Key recognition molecules which is an essential feature of adaptive or specific immunity Able to discriminate between the bodys own molecules against foreign antigens Coded by closely linked genes in chromosome 6

BASIC CONCEPTS
Major Histocompatibility Complex (Two Classes): MHC I - differentiate viral infected and abnormal cells from normal cells MHC II - allow appropriate interactions among immune cells

Properties

HLA antigens

Distribution

Functions

Class I MHC

HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C (Human Leucocyte Antigen

- helps the immune system distinguish the body's own proteins from proteins made by foreign invaders such as viruses and bacteria. )

Virtually all nucleated cells

Present processed antigen to cytotoxic CD8 Tcells; restrict cytolysis to virusinfected cells, tumor cells and transplanted cells Present processed antigenic fragments to CD4 T-cells; necessary for effective interaction among immune cells

Class II MHC

HLA-DR, HLA-DP, HLA-DQ

Immune cells, antigenpresenting cells, and macrophages