EBVF4103 (Chapter 2) Fluid Mechanics For Civil Engineering

Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A.
Karim (OUM)
Faculty of Engineering and
Technical Studies
Copyright ODL Jan 2005 Open University Malaysia
1
FLUID MECHANICS FOR
CIVIL ENGINEERING
TUTORIAL 1
UNIT 1: Elements of Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 2: Fluid Statics
Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim
EBVF4103 Fluid Mechanics for Civil Engineering
Jan 2005
Subject Matter Expert/Author: Assoc. Prof. Dr Othman A. Karim (OUM)
Technical Studies
2
SEQUENCE OF CHAPTER 2
Introduction

Objectives

2.1 Pressure
2.2 Absolute and Gauge Pressure
2.3 Variation of Pressure with Elevation
2.3.1 Pressure and Head
2.3.2 Equality of pressure at the same level in static fluid
2.3.3 Pascals Paradox
2.4 Pressure Measurement
2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surface
2.6 Hydrostatic Buoyant Force
Summary

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Fluid static is the study of pressures throughout a fluid at
rest and the pressure forces on finite surface.
The general rule applies to fluid at rest:
1. No shears stress /force acting on it.
2. Any force between the fluid and the boundary must be acting at
right angles to the boundary (normal to the surface).

Figure 2.1 Pressure forces normal to the boundary
F F
Introduction
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Objectives
1. Define the relationship between absolute pressure, gauge
pressure and atmospheric pressure.
2. Define the relationship between change in elevation and
change in pressure.
3. Describe pressure measurements.
4. Compute the hydrostatic pressures and forces on
submerged surfaces on static fluid.
5. Use the principle of static equilibrium to solve for the
forces involves in buoyancy problems.
6. Define the condition for stability of submerged and
floating bodies.
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2.1 Pressure
The basic property of a static fluid is pressure.
Pressure is defined as the amount of surface force exerted
by a fluid on any boundary it is in contact with. It can be
written as:

Unit: N / m
2
or Pascal (Pa).
(Also frequently used is bar, where 1 bar = 10
5
Pa).
) 1 . 2 (
Pr
A
F
P
applied is force the which of Area
Force
essure
=
=
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2 (TWO) important principles about pressure;
Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small volume of
fluid.
In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts
perpendicular to the boundary.
These principles, called Pascals Law,
Fluid surfaces
Figure 2.2
Pressure acting uniformly
in all directions
Figure 2.3:
Direction of fluid pressures
on boundaries
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8
2.2 Absolute and Gauge Pressure
Pressure measurements are generally indicated as being either
absolute or gauge pressure.
Gauge pressure
is the pressure measured above or below the atmospheric pressure
(i.e. taking the atmospheric as datum).
can be positive or negative.
A negative gauge pressure is also known as vacuum pressure.
Absolute pressure
uses absolute zero, which is the lowest possible pressure.
Therefore, an absolute pressure will always be positive.
A simple equation relating the two pressure measuring system can
be written as:
P
abs
= P
gauge
+ P
atm
(2.2)
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Atmospheric pressure
refers to the prevailing pressure in the air around us.
It varies somewhat with changing weather conditions, and it
decreases with increasing altitude.
At sea level, average atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa
(abs), 14.7 psi (abs), or 1 atmosphere (1 bar = 1x10
5
Pa).
This is commonly referred to as standard atmospheric
pressure.
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11
Example 2.1
Express a pressure of 155 kPa (gauge) as an absolute
pressure.
Express a pressure of 31 kPa (gauge) as an absolute
pressure.
The local atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa (abs).
Solution:
P
abs
= P
gauge
+ P
atm
P
abs
= 155 + 101 = 256 kPa
P
abs
= -31 + 101 = 70 kPa
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2.3 Variations of Pressure with Elevation
To find the variations of pressure with elevation, lets consider a
small cylindrical element of fluid of cross-sectional area A, and
height (h = Z
2
Z
1
), surrounded by the same fluid of mass density, .
Fluid
Density

Area, A
P
2
, A
P
1
, A
Z
1

Z
2

h
Reference/datum
Figure 2.4:
Small cylindrical
element of fluid
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The pressure at the bottom of the cylinder is P
1
at level Z
1
,
and at the top is P
2
at level Z
2
. The fluid is at rest and in
equilibrium so all the forces in the vertical direction sum to
zero.
Force due to P
1
(upward) = P
1
A
Force due to P
2
(downward) = P
2
A
Force due to weight of element = mg = gA(Z
2
-Z
1
)
Taking the summation of forces (upward as positive);

(|)F=0
P
1
A P
2
A - gA(Z
2
-Z
1
) = 0
P
1
P
2
= g (Z
2
-Z
1
) = gh (2.3)
or P
2
P
1
= - g(Z
2
-Z
1
) = - gh (2.3a)

Thus, in any fluid under gravity,
an increase in elevation causes a decrease in pressure.
a decrease in elevation causes an increase in pressure.
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2.3.1 Pressure and head
In a liquid with a free surface the pressure at any depth h
measured from the free surface can be found by applying equation
(2.3) to the figure.
From equation (2.3): P
1
P
2
= g (y
a
-y)
But y
a
-y = h , and
P
2
= P
atm
(atmospheric pressure since it is at free surface).
Thus,
P
1
P
atm
= gh
or P
1
= P
atm
+ gh (abs) (2.4)
or in terms of gauge pressure (P
atm
= 0),:
P
1
= gh = h (2.5)
h
P
1

P
2
= P
atm

y
y
a

Free surface
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From the above equations, it can be concluded that the change in pressure
is directly proportional to the specific weight of the liquid, and pressure
varies linearly with the change of elevation or depth.
The linear variation with depth below the free surface is known as
hydrostatic pressure distribution.
Hydrostatic pressure increases with the depth of fluid. Notice that in
Figure 2.5 below, the reading on the pressure gauge of tank A is lower
than the reading of tank B. The gauges show the pressure created by the
depth and specific weight of the liquid.
Tank A Tank B
liquid
liquid
Figure 2.6:
Different pressure
due to different depth
P
A
< P
B
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As g is assumed constant, the gauge pressure can be
given by stating the vertical height, h, of any fluid
density, , which would be necessary to produce this
pressure. This vertical height, h, is known as pressure
head or just head of fluid, and can be written as;
h = P/g (2.6)
Note that when pressures are expressed as head, the
density of fluid must be given or the fluid is named.
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2.3.2 Equality of Pressure at the Same
Level in a Static Fluid
Consider the horizontal cylindrical element of fluid with cross sectional
area, A, in a fluid of density , pressure PL at the left end and PR at the
right end.
Fluid is at equilibrium, so the sum of forces acting on the x-direction is
zero.
() F =0.
P
L
A P
R
A = 0
P
L
= P
R
(2.7)
This proof that pressure in the horizontal direction is constant.
W = mg
P
R

P
L

Fluid density,
A
A Figure 2.7
Horizontal element
cylinder of fluid
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Applying equation (2.4)
P
L
= P
P
+ gh ---------------- (1)
and
P
R
= P
Q
+ gh ---------------- (2)
Earlier, we have shown that P
L
= P
R
(refer equation 2.6), therefore
equating (1) and (2) will give
P
p
+ gh = P
Q
+ gh
P
P
= P
Q
(2.8)
This shows that the pressures at two equal levels P & Q are the same.
This is an important concept when dealing with manometers (see Section
2.4).
Figure 2.8:
Two tanks of different
cross-section connected
by a pipe
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2.3.3 Pascals Paradox
Earlier we have shown that the change in pressure depends
only on the change of elevation and the type of fluid, not on
the weight of the fluid present.
Therefore, all the containers shown in Figure 2.8 would have
the same pressure at the bottom no matter what the size or
shape of container and how much fluid they contained.
This observation is called Pascals Paradox.
h
h
Pressure is the same at the bottom of container: P=gh
Figure 2.9:
Illustration of
Pascals Paradox
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Example 2.2
What will be the gauge pressure and absolute pressure of
water at a depth 12m below the surface? Take
water
= 1000
kg/m
3
and P
atm
= 101 kN/m
2
Solution:

P
gauge
= gh
= 1000 x 9.81 x 12
= 117.7 kN/m
2
(kPa)
P
abs
= P
gauge
+ P
atm

= (117.7 + 101) kN/m
2
= 218.7 kN/m
2

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21
Example 2.3
A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 200 kN/m
2
.
Express this pressure in terms of
head of water ( =1000 kg/m
3
)
head of mercury (SG=13.6)
What would be the absolute pressure if the atmospheric
pressure is, P
atm
= 101.3 kN/m
2
.
Solution:
h= P/g
a) for water: h = 200x103/(1000x9.81)
= 20.39 m of water.
b) for mercury h = 200x103/(13.6x1000x9.81)
= 1.5 m of mercury
Absolute pressure = P
atm
+ P
gauge
= 101.3 + 200 = 301.3 kN/m
2
.
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Example 2.4
Figure below shows a tank with one side open to the
atmosphere and the other side sealed with air above the oil
(SG=0.90). Calculate the gauge pressure at points A,B,C,D,E.
2 m
3 m
1 m
E
A
C
B D
Oil (SG = 0.90)
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Solution:
At point A, the oil is exposed to the atmosphere
thus P
A
=P
atm
= 0 (gauge)
Point B is 3 m below point A,
Thus P
B
= P
A
+
oil
gh
= 0 + 0.9x1000x9.81x3
= 26.5 kPa (gauge)
Point C is 5 m below point A,
Thus P
C
= P
A
+
oil
gh
= 0 + 0.9x1000x9.81x5
= 44.15 kPa (gauge)
Point D is at the same level of point B,
thus P
D
= P
B
= 26.5 kPa (gauge)
Point E is higher by 1 m from point A,
Thus P
E
= P
A
-
oil
gh
= 0 - 0.9x1000x9.81x1
= -8.83 kPa (gauge).
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2.4 Pressure Measurement
Atmospheric pressure is usually measured by a
mercury barometer.
A simple barometer consists of a tube more than
760 mm (30 inch) long inserted in an open container
of mercury with a closed and evacuated end at the
top and open end at the bottom with mercury
extending from the container up into the tube.
A void is produced at the top of the tube which is
very nearly a perfect vacuum. Figure 2.10 below
shows an example of a barometer.
Mercury rises in the tube to a height of
approximately 760 mm (30 in.) at sea level.
The level of mercury will rise and fall as
atmospheric pressure changes; direct reading of the
mercury level gives prevailing atmospheric pressure
as a pressure head (of mercury), which can be
converted to pressure using the relation:
P
atm
= gh.
Figure 2.10:
Barometer
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Piezometer tube
A simple vertical tube open at the top, which is attached to
the system containing the liquid where the pressure (higher
than atmospheric pressure) to be measured.
As the tube is open to the atmosphere, the pressure
measured is the gauge pressure.
A
-
B
h
1

h
2

Liquid
density,
Pressure at A = pressure due to
column of liquid above A
P
A
= gh
1

Pressure at B = pressure due to
column of liquid above B

P
B
= gh
2

Figure 2.11: Piezometer tube
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U-tube Manometer
One end of the U-tube is connected to the pressure that is to be
measured, while the other end is left open to atmosphere.
The tube contains a liquid, which is called the manometric fluid,
which does not mix with the fluid whose pressure is to be
measured.
The fluid whose pressure is being measured should have a lesser
density than the manometric fluid. ( <
man
)
B
P
A

C
D

h
1

h
2

P
a

Manometric fluid density,
man

Fluid density,
Figure 2.12:
U-tube manometer
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Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,
Pressure at B = Pressure at C
P
B
= P
c
(1)
For the left hand arm:
Pressure at B = Pressure at A + pressure due to h1
P
B
= P
A
+ gh
1
(2)
For right hand arm:
Pressure at C = Pressure at D + pressure due to height h
2
P
C
= P
D
+
man
gh2
but P
D
= P
atm
(atmospheric pressure due to open end)
As we are measuring gauge pressure, Patm = 0
P
C
=
man
gh2 (3)
But P
C
= P
B
, substitute in (3); will give;
P
B
=
man
gh2 (4)
Equating (2) and (4);
P
A
+ gh
1
=
man
gh
2
P
A
=
man
gh
2
- gh
1
(2.9)
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Differential Manometer
In some cases, the different
between the pressures at two
different points is desired rather
than the actual value of the
pressure at each point.
A manometer to determine this
pressure difference is called the
differential manometer (see figure
below).
The liquids in manometer will rise
or fall as the pressure at either end
(or both ends) of the tube changes.
Figure 2.13:
Differential manometer
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In the above figure:
P
1
= P
A
+
1
ga
P
2
= P
B
+
1
g(b-h) +
man
gh
But P
1
= P
2
(same horizontal level)
Thus P
A
+
1
ga = P
B
+
1
g(b-h) +
man
gh
or P
A
- P
B
=
1
g(b-h) +
man
gh -
1
ga
P
A
- P
B
=
1
g(b-a) + gh(
man
-
1
) (2.10)
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Pressure Gauges
The pressure to be measured is
applied to a curved tube, oval in cross
section.
Pressure applied to the tube tends to
cause the tube to straighten out, and
the deflection of the end of the tube
is communicated through a system of
levers to a recording needle.
This gauge is widely used for steam
and compressed gases.
The pressure indicated is the
difference between that
communicated by the system to the
external (ambient) pressure, and is
usually referred to as the gauge
pressure.
Figure 2.16:
Bourdon tube
pressure gauges
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Example 2.5
What height would a barometer need to be to measure
atmospheric pressure?
Solution:

P
atm
= 1 bar = 1 x 10
5
Pa
P
atm
= gh
Water barometer:
Mercury barometer:
water of m
x
x
g
P
h
water
atm
2 . 10
81 . 9 1000
10 1
5
= =
=
mercury of m
x x
x
g
P
h
Hg
atm
75 . 0
81 . 9 1000 6 . 13
10 1
5
= =
=
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Example 2.6
Determine the pressure at point A in the figure below if
h
1
= 0.2 m and h
2
= 0.3 m. Use
water
= 1000 kg/m
3
.
Solution:
P
2
= P
1
+
Hg
gh
2

But P
1
= P
atm
(open to atmosphere) ==>P
1
= 0 (gauge)
P
2
=
Hg
gh
2
P
3
= P
A
+
water
g(h
1
+h
2
)

We know that P
2
= P
3
(same horizontal level)

Thus

Hg
gh
2
= P
A
+
water
g(h
1
+h
2
)

P
A
=
Hg
gh
2
-
water
g(h
1
+h
2
)
P
A
= 13.54x1000x9.81x0.3 1000x9.81x(0.2+0.3)
P
A
= 39, 848 - 4905
P
A
= 34.9 kPa (gauge)
Points to be selected:

1 at the open end of the manometer
2 at the right leg of the manometer
3 same level with point 2 but at left
leg of the manometer
4 same level as point A

Pressure at the points:
P
1
=P
atm

P
2
= P
3

P
4
= P
A

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2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surface
Pressure has been defined as force divided by the area on which it acts.
This principle can be restated as when a fluid is adjacent to a fixed
surface, it exerts a force on the surface because of the pressure in the
liquid. For fluid at rest, the force always act at right angles to the surface.
For horizontal plane submerged in a liquid, the pressure, P, will be equal
at all points of the surface. This leads to the conclusion that the resultant
force on horizontal surface due to that pressure can be computed from the
simple product of pressure times the area of interest, i.e.
Force = Pressure x Area of plane
F = PA
This force will act vertically downward and through the center of pressure.
h
F=PA=gh
Figure 2.17:
Resultant force on
horizontal plane
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2.5.1 Resultant Force and Center of
Pressure on a Submerged Plane
Surface in a Liquid
Figure 2.18 below shows a plane
surface PQ of an area A submerged in a
liquid of density, , and inclined at an
angle | to the free surface.
Considering one side only, there will be
a force due to fluid pressure, acting on
each element of area oA, the magnitude
of the pressure will depend on the
vertical depth y of the element below
the free surface. Taking the pressure at
the free surface as zero, and from
equation (2.5), the pressure at a
distance y below the free surface can be
written as:
p = gy. (2.13)
Figure 2.18:
Resultant force on a
plane surface
immersed in a fluid
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Force on elemental area oA: dF = PoA = gyoA
The resultant force acting on the plane can be found by summing all the forces on
the small element:
F = PoA = gy oA
Assuming that and g are constant,
F = g y oA (2.14)
The quantity y oA is the first moment of area under the surface PQ about the free
surface of the liquid and is equal to A, where A = the area of the whole immersed
surface and = vertical distance from the free surface to the centroid of the area,
G, of the immersed surface.
Centroid of the area is defined as the point at which the area would be balanced if
suspended from that point. It is equivalent to the center or gravity of a solid body.
Substituting into equation (2.13) will give
F = gA (2.15)
It may be noted that the resultant force, F, is independent of the angle of
inclination | so long as the depth of the centroid is unchanged.
The point of application of the resultant force on the submerged area is called the
center of pressure. This resultant force will act perpendicular to the immersed
surface at the center of pressure, C.
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The vertical depth of the center of pressure, y
0
, below the
free surface can be found using the following:

(2.16)
where
Ig = second moment of plane area about its center of gravity
A = the area of the whole immersed surface
= vertical distance from the free surface to the centroid of the area A
The above equation implies that the center of pressure is
always below the centroid.
Table 2.1 below gives the second moment of area about a
line through the centroid of some common shapes.
y A
I
y y
g
o
+ =
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Table 2.1 Second Moments of Area
G G
h
b
G
G
h
h/3
G
d
G
Rectangle
Triangle
td
4
/64 td
2
/4
Circle
bh
3
/36 bh/2
bh
3
/12 bh
I
g

Area Shape
G
G
h
h/3
G
h
G
b
G
G
d
b
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The area of this triangle (RST) represents the resultant force per unit width on the
vertical wall. So;
Area of pressure diagram = Therefore, the resultant force per unit width,
(2.17)

This force acts through the centroid of the pressure diagram. For a triangle, the
centroid is located at 2/3 its height, thus the resultant force acts at a depth of 2/3 H
from R.
The total resultant force can be obtained by multiplying the above equation with the
width of the surface, B.
F = pgH
2
B (2.17a)
The same pressure diagram technique can be used when combinations of liquid are
held in tanks (e.g. oil floating on water).
2.5.2 Pressure Diagram
In Figure, the triangle on the right hand side
(RST) is a graphical representation of the
(gauge) pressure change with depth on one
side of the vertical wall of the tank containing
a liquid with density . At the free surface the
gauge pressure is zero. It increases linearly
from zero at the surface by P = gy, to a
maximum of at the base of P = gH.
S
F
w

T
y
H
Liquid
density,
2/3 H
P = gy
P = gH
R
) / (
2
1
2
m N gH F
w
=
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Example 2.7
A 6-m deep tank contains 4 m of water and 2-m of oil as
shown in the diagram below. Determine the pressure at
point A and at the bottom of the tank. Draw the pressure
diagram.
A
oil
water
2 m
4 m
water
= 1000 kg/m
3

SG of oil = 0.98
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Solution:
Pressure at oil water interface (P
A
)
P
A
= P
atm
+ P
oil
(due to 2 m of oil)
= 0 +
oil
gh
oil
= 0 + 0.98 x 1000 x 9.81 x 2
= 15696 Pa
PA = 15.7 kPa (gauge)
Pressure at the bottom of the tank;
P
B
= P
A
+
water
gh
water
P
B
= 15.7x1000 + 1000 x 9.81 x 4
= 54940 Pa
P
B
= 54.9 kPa (gauge)
P
atm
= 0
4 m
2 m
P
A

P
A
=15.7 kPa
B
A
oil
water
P
B
= 54.9 kPA
Pressure Diagram
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2.6 Hydrostatic Buoyant Force
When a body is submerged or floating in a static fluid, the resultant force
exerted on it by the fluid is called the buoyancy force. This buoyancy force is
always acting vertically upward, and has the following characteristics;
The buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the solid
body.
The buoyancy force acts through the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid,
called the center of buoyancy.
A floating body displaces a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the weight
of the body
The above principle is known Archimedes principle and can be defined
mathematically as demonstrated below (see Figure 2.21);
W = mg
F
b
= W F
b
= W
G
B
G
B
W = mg
Volume of
displaced
fluid
Figure 2.21:
Buoyancy force
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42
For equilibrium: + F
y
= 0
F
b
W = 0 or F
b
= W
Therefore we can write ;
F
b
= weight of fluid displaced by the body
or F
b
= W = mg = g (2.21)
where F
b
= buoyant force
= displaced volume of fluid
W = weight of fluid
The buoyant force will act | through the center of
buoyancy (B), while the weight will act + through the center
of gravity (G) of the body.
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43
Summary
The chapter has summarized the important of:
1. Pressure as basic property of fluid and the equation
2. Principal of Pascal Law
3. Indicating the gauge pressure and absolute pressure
4. The variations of pressure with elevation and the
calculation involved
5. Pressure measurement of Piezometer Tube, U-tube
Manometer, Differential Manometer, Advances of U-Tube
Manometer and Pressure Gauges
6. The Resultant force and the application to the pressure
diagram
7. Demonstrating the technique of determining the forces
acting on submerged or partially submerged surfaces
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44
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