Chapter two

Late in 1994 . Reports began to appear in the news media that the latest generation of Pentium ,microprocessors was flawed , the stories reported that computers equipped with these chips were unable to correctly perform some relatively simple multiplication and division operations.

At first , Intel denied that there was a problem , Later , it argued that although there was a problem , The error would be significant only in sophisticated applications and most people wouldnt even notice than an error had occurred . Many people who had purchased Pentium based computers asked to have the defective chip replaced . Until the public outcry had reached huge proportions . Intel agreed to replace the defective chips when customers requested it .

Did intel do anything unethical ? To answer this question . We will need to develop a framework for understanding ethical problems . One part of this framework will be the codes of ethics . These codes help guide engineers in the course of their professional duties and give them insight into ethical problems . The engineering codes of ethics hold that engineers should not make false claims or present a product to be something that it is not.

Are codes of ethics applicable to engineering ? To answer this question . We must first consider what professions are and how they function and then decide if this definition applies to engineering .

In order to determine whether engineering is a profession . The nature of professions must first be examined . As starting point . It will be valuable to distinguish the word profession from other words that are sometimes used synonymously with profession : job and occupation . Engineering is certainly a job _engineers are paid for their services_ but the skills and responsibilities involved in engineering make it more than just a job .

The word profession and professional have many uses in modern society . One often hears about professional athletes or some one referring to himself as a professional carpenter . For example , in the first case , the word professional is being used to distinguish the practitioner from an unpaid amateur . In the second case , it is used to indicate some degree of skill acquired through many years of experience . With an implication that this practitioner will provide quality services .

 1.

Attributes of a profession include : Work that required sophisticated skills. The use of judgment , and the exercise of discretion . Also , the work is not routine and is not capable of being mechanized . Membership in the profession requires extensive formal education , not simply practical training or apprenticeship . The public allows special societies or organization that are controlled by members of the profession to set standards for admission to the profession , to set standards of conduct for members , and to enforce these standards . Significant public good result form the practice of the profession .

2.

3.

4.

Many occupation required judgment everyday , Like secretary (must decide what work to tackle first ), and auto mechanic (must decide if a part is sufficiently worn to require complete replacement ) This is not the type of judgment implied in this definition . In profession judgment refers to

making significant decisions based on formal training and experience . In

general . The decision will have serious impacts on peoples lives and will often have important implication regarding the spending of large amount of money .


1.

Discretion can have two different meanings :

Being discrete in the performance of ones duties by keeping information about customers , clients , and patients confidential . This confidentiality is essential for engendering a

trusting relationship and is a hallmark of professions .

1.

The ability to make decision autonomously . When making a decision , one is often told Use your discretion . Many people are allowed to use their discretion in making choices while performing their jobs . However , the significance of the decision marks the differences between a job and a profession .

It is time to consider whether engineering is a profession . Engineering requires extensive and sophisticated skills . The essence of engineering design is judgment . How to use available materials , component and devices , to reach specified objectives . Discretion is required in engineering . Engineers are required to keep their employers intellectual property and business information confidential . A primary concern of any engineers is the safety of the public .

Training for engineers is different than for lawyers for example .

Many professions require licenses granted by the state in order to practice but the engineering practice does not require licenses.

Sociologists who study the nature of professional societies describe two different models of professions ( socialcontract , business models ) . Where does the engineering fit ? Engineering is a service oreinted profession that fits into the social contract quit nicely .

Engineers would get a four year preengineering degree in mathematics , physics , computer science or any combination of these fields . After that they could enter a three or four year engineering professional program doctor of engineering .

An aspect of professional societies is the code of ethics that engineering societies have adopted. These codes express the rights duties and obligations of the members of the profession. Codes of ethics are not limited to professional or organization we can also be funded e.g. in corporations and university.

A code of ethics provide us framework for ethical judgment for professional. No code can be totally comprehensive and cover all possible ethical situation. Codes serves as starting point for ethical decision making. Code of ethics expresses the commitment to ethical conduct sheared by members of a profession .

Ethical code dont establish new ethical principles , but the reiterate principles and standard that accepted as responsible engineering practice. Code of ethics expresses in a coherent comprehensive and accessible manner. A code defines the rules and responsibilities and professionals.

Code of ethics is not a recipe for ethical behavior, it just framework for a arriving at good ethical choices. A code of ethics is never a substitute for sound judgment . A code of ethics is not legal document . A code of ethics doesn't a create new moral or ethical principles .

A code of ethics spells out the ways in which moral and ethical principles of professional practice and help engineers to apply a moral principles to the unique situation . A code of ethics help to create an environment within a profession . A code of ethics can serves as a guide for how to act .

A code of ethics used to bolster an individuals position with regard to a certain activity. E.g. the code provides a little back ground for members who being pressure by superior to behave un ethically. A code of ethics should not use as wind dressing an attempt by an organization to appear to become committed to ethical behavior when its really not.

Few practicing engineers are members of professional societies and so dont necessary to abide by their codes. Many engineers are members of professional societies are not aware of the existence of the societies code , or aware it. Consultation of the codes are rare. Engineering codes have an internal conflict and dont give method to solve it. Code can be coercive .

 Codes

of ethics organized in u.s.a in19th century and developed in this century.

Societies is matured and many of them create a code to guide practicing engineers.

Ethically

 Early

in this century codes of ethics concerned with issue of how to conduct business e.g. many codes had clauses forbidding advertise of services or prohibiting competitive bidding by engineers for design project.

codes

spells out the duties that engineers had toward their employers.

There are so many kinds of codes like: ASE and ICC codes but we will considers ABOUT 2 other kind :IEEE AND NSPE. Although these codes have some common content they have different structures . And these tow chart indicates the form of ASE and ICC CODES clauses:

IEEE codes is short and deals in generalities, where NSPE are longer and more detailed and explanations of these different is rooted in the philosophy of the authors codes. Short code is lacking in details and is more likely to be read by members than longer code, and articulates general principles and truly functions as a framework for ethical decision making. Along codes is too explicit and able to cover many ground and it leaves less to the imagination of members so it can used in applications to specific cases.

The length of the codes is less likely to members to be read and thoroughly understood by most engineers. IEEE doesn't mention duty to ones employer , and mentioned duty to protect environment . NSPE has preamble that succinctly present the duty of the engineers before going on the more discussions of the rest of the codes, and NSPE code dose mentioned the duty to his or her employer.

The internal conflict is one of objection to codes ,e.g. situation in which employer ask or order an engineers to design implement and engineer feels will be unsafe. In this case NSPE TELL to this engineers must go ahead in his work because he has a duty to his employer. (clause 1.4), but in previously and at (clause 1.1) its preamble justified the safety of public is important concern of an engineers.

To solve these conflict we must know the hierarchy within codes and precedence's. In previous example the public safety is precedence on duty to superior and engineer must convince his boss that the product cant be designed as request. Unfortunately not all internal conflicts in codes of ethics are easily to solved.

One of the most important rules of professional societies is to protect the right of employees who are being pressured by their superiors. codes of professional societies are of some used in protect employees since they can be used by employees as ammunition against an employer who sanctioning them for pointing out them to do unethical behavior.

E.g. the action of IEEE on behalf of 3 electrical engineers who were fired from (BART)organization when they pointing out the deficiencies in the way of control system for the (BART) so IEEE support these engineers and intervened their behalf on the court because these engineers sued (BART) and IEEE citing with them because the importance of public safety.

Professional societies are not the only organization that have codified their ethical standard. these other organization developed codes and used it for many various purpose like professional societies e.g. code for ethical computer are developed and student organizations in universities have framed student code of ethics.

Most practicing engineers are not members of professional organization its seem that for many engineers there is little ethical guidance in their daily work. If practicing engineers adopting and recognized the professional codes there would still value to the corporate codes. Codes of professional societies cant be explicit by their nature.

Remember that these code of ethics cant cover all possible situations that an employee might encounter. There is no alternative for good judgment. A code also dose not alternative for a good lines of communications between employees and upper management and for workable methods for fixing ethical problem when they occur.

Ameer Khaleel Murad Salameh Yacoub Rabba Ali Suliman Omar Al-masri Ibrahem Abdullah Shubki