THE IMPLEMENTATION

IN
INDUSTRY
Alain P. Chacon Paniagua

alainplaton@gmail.com
Introduction
How to govern a process automatically?
Basics of Control
Fundamentals of Instrumentation
Manual operation of a process
Observe
Compare
Decide
Act
Operating a process
Process
Measure
Act
Dynamic response
Manual or open loop
Changes
Replies
Compare
Decide
Automatic operation
Process
Measure
Act
Changes
Replies
Regulator
Values
Wish
Closed loop operation
Automatic Operation
LT LC
Measure
Compare
Decide
Act
Components
Process
Variables
to control
Regulator
Values
Wish
Actuator
Transmitter
Measured values
Variables
to act
Temperature Control
Measure
Compare
Decide
Act
Index
Control Systems: Terminology
Control Continuous / Discrete
Transmitters
Definitions and types
Level, Pressure, Flow, Temperature ...
Actuators:
Valves
Pumps and Compressors
System Dynamics
Terminology
Disturbance
Variable
Manipulated
Variable
Controlled
Reference
LT LC
Process
Regulator
Transmitter
Controlled Variable
Variable controled CV
Process Variable PV
Output (the process)
Reference
Motto
Set Point SP
Manipulated variable
Manipulated Variable MV
Output to Process OP
Input (the process)
w
MV or
and (Europe)
CV and
x
Disturbances
Deviation Variables DV
Block Diagram
Continuous Control
The controlled variable, taking values in a continuous range, is
measured and continuously acts on a range of values
Actuator
Variable
Manipulated
Variable
Controlled
Reference
LT LC
Disturbance
Discrete control
Peak detector
and minimum height
Solenoid
ON / OFF
Relay
The only variables
support a set
finite state
Process diagrams P & I
Instruments
Measurement and control
represented by
circles with
numbers and letters
Processing units
and actuators
represented by
special symbols
Connection lines
LT
102
LC
102
Tools
Indicators
Transmitters
Recorders
Converters
Drivers
Actuators
Transducers
Connected by lines
Transmission:

Pneumatic
Power
Digital
Tools
LRC
128
PT
014
Field Mount
Process connection
or feeding
Pneumatic signal
Panel Mounting
Electrical signal
The number is the same for all instruments of a
same control loop
Digital Instruments
LRC
128
PT
014
Not normally accessible
to the operator
Accessible to the operator
Shares several features:
display, control, etc..
Software configurable
Network access
The number is the same for all instruments of a
same control loop
DCS controller,
microprocessor
controller, ...
Digital Instruments
LRC
128
Computer
Unlike a DCS controller
Several functions: DDC,
logging, alarms, etc..
Network access
Connection
software or digital
network
Digital Instruments
Or sequential logic
control
Or sequences PLC /
DCS logic of a
Accessible to the operator
Not accessible to the operator
1st letter: measured variable or related
2nd letter: You can qualify to the first
Differential D
F ratio
S security
Q integration
3 rd ff: Instrument function
I indicator
A record
C Control
T transmitter
Valve V
And calculation
High H
L under
A analysis
Density D
Voltage E
Flow F
Current I
J Power
L level
M moisture
Pressure P
Speed S
Temperature T
Viscosity V
W Weight
Z position
1st letter
Tools
PDT LRC PIC
DTT
DT
FY FFC ST
Warmer
MV
CV
DV
Transmitters
Sensor: Parent element sensitive to a
physical property related to the variable
being measured.
Transmitter: System sensor attached to
converting, conditioning and normalizes the
signal for transmission at a distance.
Indicator: combines a sensor and a
measuring system analog or digital.
Pressure Transmitter
Electronic circuit
Sensor
Piezoelectric
Amplification
Filtered
Calibrated
Power
Normalization
Pressure
Signal
standard
Transmitters
Pneumatic signal: 0.2 to 1 kg / cm
2
3 to 15 psi
Electrical Signal: 4 to 20 mA
1 to 5 V dc, ....
Frequency: pulse / time
Other: RTD, Contacts, ...
Digital signal: HART, Fieldbus, RS-232 ...
4-20 mA
The current signal is the same in any point of the line
You can differentiate a fault or break in line of range
lower measurement
You can connect a maximum number of loads or instruments
Transmitter
mA
FC
Pulse / Frequency
Transmitter
FC
Counter
Pulse
The number of voltage pulses received
per unit time is proportional to
value of the measured quantity
Feeding
Transmitter
mA
Transmitter
mA
220 V ac
24 V dc

Consumption
Connectors
Working conditions
Protections
Mounting
Connection
XT
Protection
and isolation
Filtered
Tomas
auxiliary
Conditioning XC
SP
CV
MV
Shielding
Transmitter
mA
FC
Wiring, Reliability, ...
Control
Room
TT
FT
DT
Wiring costs
Noise
Reliability of equipment
Calibration, maintenance, ...
Distance
Fieldbus
PLC
Computer
Digital Bus 1101 ...
Microprocessor
Module A / D and
Communications
TT FT
DT
Intelligent Instrumentation
It incorporates a
microprocessor
This gives you
computing power and
storage of information:
Instrument Data
Dynamic Data
Provides a digital
communications
system which may be
bidirectional
Provide new features
Intelligent Instrumentation
Fully digital fieldbus
Communications
between all elements
connected to the bus,
instruments and
control systems

Hybrid: combines
analog transmission
and digital HART
protocol
Communications
between transmitters
and control systems
Fieldbus
Save wiring
Noise Rejection
New features: Remote setting rank, test, documentation, ....
More elaborate information
Architectures and Protocols
PLC
Computer
Digital Bus
1101 ...
Fieldbuses
Foundation Fieldbus (H1 and H2 levels)
Profibus DP, PA
WorldFIP
CAN
DeviceNet

.....
HART
Unit
HART
RS-232
LT
PT
FT
Superimposed digital communication
to the signal 4-20mA
Allows test, calibration. Etc.
from your computer or handheld module

4-20 mA
1011 ..
Serial interface
Analyzer
Point to point RS-232, RS-422
RS-485 Bus
A / D
Communication protocol
11010 ...
Terminology (SAMA)
Rank
Span
Dynamic error
Accuracy
Sensitivity
Repeatability
Dead zone and hysteresis
Transmitters
Range: 20 - 80 C
Span: 80-20 = 60 C
20 mA
4 mA
20 C 80 th C
Calibrated:

read = f (actual value)

Zero and Span Adjustments
mA = 0.2667 C - 1.3333
Transmitters
20 mA
4 mA
20 C 80 th C
Calibrated:

read = f (actual value)

Zero and Span Adjustments
mA = 0.2667 C - 1.3333
Zero
Span
Transmitters
20 mA
4 mA
20 C 80 th C
Linearity error

Due to the
nonlinearity of the
actual calibration curve

% Span
Value indicated
Actual value
Transmitters
Dead Zone:
Change in variable
As not alter
reading.
% Of span
20 mA
4 mA
20 C 80 th C
Area
dead
Transmitters
Repeatability
20 mA
4 mA
20 C 80 th C
Repeatability:
Ability to obtain the same reading to read the same value
of the variable measured in the same direction of change.
% Of span
Hysteresis:
The same but in different directions of change.
Transmitters
20 mA
4 mA
20 C 80 th C
Actual value
dynamic error
value indicated
Accuracy:
Maximum Limit
possible error
by linearity,
hysteresis, etc. ....

% Of span
% Of reading
Direct value ...
Transmitters
1 unit
20 mA
4 mA
20 C 80 th C
Sensitivity
Sensitivity:
Change in reading
corresponding
to a unit change
in the variable

% Of span
Temperature Transmitters
Bulb
RTD (Pt100 0 C 100 O)
Thermistors (Semiconductors)
Thermocouples E, J, K, RS, T
Pyrometers (high temperature, radiation)
Pt-100
0 C 100O
The electrical
resistance changes
with temperature
Electrical bridge
for conversion to
electric voltage
signal
Range of use: -200 500 C Sensitivity: 0.4 O / C
Accuracy: 0.2%
Bridge
V
R
R
R R
t

Pt100
When the bridge is balanced, the voltage V
is zero. If you change R
t
the voltage V is
changed.
Three-wire connection
V
R
R
R R
t

Pt100
The length of the connecting wires is important as the third
line makes the same resistance is added to each branch and
offset imbalance in the bridge
Thermocouples
T
1

T
2

I
At the juncture of certain
metals is generated emf if
the ends are at different
temperatures. The f.e.m.
depends on the
temperature difference
Thermocou
ple
T
M
Measure: Opposes a
known voltage to the
thermocouple to the output
of amp. differential is zero
Thermocouples
Type Range Accuracy
T -200 250 C 2%
J 0 750 C 0.5%
K 0 1300 C 1%
R / S 0 1600 C 0.5%
W 0 2800 C 1%
Pressure Transmitters
Absolute pressure
Pressure gauge
Differential pressure
Measures based on:
Displacement
Gauges
Piezoelectricity
Sensor
displacement
Capacity
Induction
Potentiometer
Pressure
Piezoelectric sensor
Quartz crystal
Force
Metal plate
+
-
Gauges / Hall Effect
N
S
Current
Force
Hall Effect
Strain gages
The
deformation
varies R
Pressure Transmitter
Level Transmitters
Displacement
Float
Force: Archimedes Principle
Differential pressure
Capacitive
Ultrasound
Radar
Level: differential pressure
LT
(P
0
+gh) - p
0
Measuring the
pressure difference
between both
branches
It is assumed
constant density
Condensation in the
tubes
Capacitive
Between the electrode
and the shell wall is
formed a capacitor
whose capacity depends
on the level of liquid
Level: Ultrasound
The time between
transmission and
reception of high
frequency waves is
proportional to the
level
Flow Transmitters
Differential pressure
Electromagnetic
Turbine
Vortex
Doppler Effect
Mass (Coriolis) .....
Orifice plates
P
1
P
2

D
d ) P P ( g 2
4
D
1
C q
2 1
2
4
2
= |

t
|
|
=
Based on the
differential pressure
measurement
D
d
S
Electromagnetic flowmeters
N
S
B
In the conductor
(liquid) flowing at
a rate within the
field B induces an
EMF proportional
to speed, which is
collected at the
electrodes
N
-
+
Actuators
Final control elements. Altering the
manipulated variable of the process
according to the control signal.
Valves
Engines
Variable speed pumps
Power amplifiers
....
Valves
Device for varying the flow rate through a
driving modifying the pressure drop across
it by a variable shutter.
Manual closing
Retention
Security
On / Off
Regulation
Regulating valves
Structure and function
Types of valves
Calculation Formulas
Static characteristics
Cavitation
Installed Features
A valve dynamics
Pneumatic seat
Air
Fluid
Shutter
Seat
Flanges
Membrane
Stem
Spring
Top
Indicator
Body
Servomotor
Tire
Electric
3 -15 psi
Regulating valves
Air
Seat or balloon
Double seat
Needle
Saunders
Gate
Butterfly
Camflex II

2 -3 ways
Sealing
Maximum pressure
Flow capacity
Fluid type
Fluid
Butterfly
Body
Air open / close
Air
Air
Air closes
Open
air
Air
close
s
Open
air
I / P
3-15 psi air
I
P
4 to 20
mA
Low accuracy in
positioning the rod
Air and electric power
Positioner
Positioner
Air Supply
Air
Control signal
4 to 20 mA
Pressure Drop
Ap
a C
q
v
=
1
2 2
2

Apressure drop p
flow q
a fraction of opening
Coefficient C
density
q
Ap
to
p
1
p
2
Calculation Formulas
q
aC p
v v
=
116 .
A

q
aC
p p p
v
v
= +
724
1 2
.
( ) A
q t / h
p bars
to both a
q m3 / h
p bars
density
on
to both a
Saturated steam
Liquids
q
Ap
to
p
1
p
2
Flow coefficient Cv
Static characteristics
% Of position
rod
% Area of
Seat 100%

% Of peak flow
in cond. nominal
toAconstant p
Linear
Isoporcentuales
Quick opening
Butterfly
Camflex
0% 100%
0%
0% 100%
0%
Butterfly
Quick
opening
Linear
Equal
percentage
Static characteristics
Rangeability
0% 100%
0%
maximum controllable flow
R = -------------------------------
minimum controllable flow
% Position of the rod
Flow
uncontrollable
R = 50 ... 20
Cavitation
length
pressure p
1
p
2
length
pressure p
1
p
2
Steam pressure
Steam pressure
Vapor Pressure:
Pressure at which boiling
liquid at room
work
Cavitation
q
aC p
v v
=
116 .
A

Cavitation
incipient
Ap
v
q
Maximum Ap
to regulate flow
Critical flow
Ap K p p
v c v
s ( )
1
K
c
Coefficient
incipient cavitation
A
A
p C p p
p
p
M
f
v
v
c
=

(
(
2
1
096 028 ( . . )
p Maxima caida de presion admisible
M
C
F
Flow factor
critical
p
c
pressure
critical point
Calculation Formulas
q
a C C p y y
y
C
p
p
f v
f
v
=

= s
1
3
1
0148
545
163
15
( . )
.
.
.
gas
y
A
q t / h
p bars
q
a C C p y y
q
a C C p
f v
f v
=

=
1
3
1
0148
837
837
( . )
.
.
vapor saturado
flujo critico
Installed Features
q
aC p
v v
=
116 .
A

q
Ap
v
to
p
1
p
2
h
q
p gh
K
a C
L
v
=

+
|
\

|
.
|
1
116
1
0
2 2
.
A

A A p p K q gh
v L 0
2
= + +
Ap
0
Installed Features
q
p gh
K
a C
L
v
=

+
|
\

|
.
|
1
116
1
0
2 2
.
A

% Position of the rod

% Q
Smart Valves
Positioner +
Microprocessor
Air
Fieldbus
Characterizatio
n
Diagnostics
Alarms
Control blocks,
etc..
Pumps
Positive Displacement
Centrifuges
Installation
Power and performance
Characteristic curves
Cavitation
Positive Displacement
Piston, diaphragm, ...
Centrifuges
Engine
Asynchronous
Impeller
Electric power Mechanical energy
Centrifugal pumps
( )
Ap aw bq
b
=
2 2
P p q P P
P W
b
=
=
36022 . A otencia suministrada
W Potencia absorvida q
P kw
q m3 / h
p bars
Increased energy = energy supplied - losses
Characteristic curves
Ap
b
q
e
1
e
2
e
2
> e
1
q
Operating point
Ap
b
q
q
Ap
v
to
h
A A A
A A
p p p K q gh
p
a C
K q gh p
b v L
b
v
L
0
2
2 2
2
0
1
+ = + + =
= + +

( )
Ap
0
Ap
b
Variable speed pumps
M
Drive
~
4 to 20 mA
Compressors
Ap
b
q
e
1
e
2
e
2
> e
1
Pumping line (surge)
Electric motors
N
S
B
F
F
Electric motors AC / DC
M
Amplifier
CC
4 to 20 mA
Feeding
M
Drive
~
4 to 20 mA
DC
Motor
AC
induction
motor
THE PROBLEM OF
CONTROL
Process Controller
or
w
and
SP CV
v
MV
DV
Drivers
Generate a control signal to the actuator
normalized according to the measured value
of the variable to be controlled and its
desired value.
Reference
Controlled variable
4-20 mA
Error
+
-
Variable
manipulated
4-20 mA
Calculation and
normalization
Drivers
Technologies:
Pneumatics
Electronics
Digital
Loop controllers (PID)
PLCs (PLC)
Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
Control Computer (PC)
Controller
SP 45
45.5 PV
4-20 mA
transmitter
4-20 mA to
actuator
MV
38%
Governor Signs
Process Regulator
Transmitter
Actuator
w
The input and output signals to the controller are
normalized signals, usually 4-20 mA
or and
4-20 mA
4-20 mA
THE PID CONTROLLER
signal based controllerDoes not incorporate
explicit knowledge of the process
3 tuning parameters K
p
, T
i
, T
d

Various modifications
e t w t y t
u t K e t
T
e d T
de
dt
p
i
d
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
=
= + +
|
\

|
.
|
}
1
t t
Two options
Process R
w
or
Process R
w or
Mr.
mA Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
mA
Mr.
%
%
mA a
n
d
a
n
d
mA
%
+
-
+
-
%
K
p
% /%
K
p
% / Eng
Analysis of the regulator
G
p
R
100/span
Actuator
W
The input and output signals to the controller usually
expressed in% of the span of the transmitter and the actuator
respectively.
The conversion of the regulator should correspond to
Transmitter Calibration
U
%
%
%
+
-
And
100/span
PID parameters
K
p
gain / proportional term
% Span control /% controlled variable span
proportional band PB = 100 / K
p

T
i
Full time / full term
minutes or sg. (By repetition) (reset time)
replicates per min = 1 / T
i

T
d
Derivative time / term derivative
minutes or sg.
Proportional action
u t K e t bias
p
( ) ( ) = +
and
t
or
t
An error of x% causes a control action
of K
p
x% of the actuator

bias = manual reset (CV = SD)
Direct / reverse action
LT
Direct acting controller K
p
<0 Reverse acting controller K
p
> 0
u (t) = K
p
(W-y) if u increases and decreases with K
p

positive
consider the type of
valve
LC
LT
LC
Proportional action
M
K
p

w
or
Mr.
Ampl.
a
n
d
30%
+
-
1500
rpm
1500
rpm
u (t) = K
p
e (t) + 30
You can only reach an
equilibrium with zero error
Integral action (Automatic reset)
a
n
d
a
n
d
w w
t t
or
t
or
t
A regulator does not eliminate P
stationary error
self-regulating processes
Integral action continues
changing or until the
error is zero
K
T
ed
p
i
t
}
Integral Action
M
K
p

w
or
Mr.
Ampl.
a
n
d
+
-
1500
rpm
K
T
ed
p
i
t
}
1500
rpm
Integral Action
and
t
and
t
K
p
and
If e = constant.
K
T
ed
p
i
t
}
T
i
= 1 repeat
K
T
ed
K
T
et K e t T
p
i
p
i
p i
t
}
= = =
T
i
time taken for the
integral action in match
proportional action
(A repeat) if e = constant.
u t
K
T
e d
p
i
t
( ) ( ) =
}
t t
0
Derivative action
a
n
d
a
n
d
w w
t t
or
t
or
t
A P controller with gain
high for rapid response
may cause oscillations
for u too
The derivative action accelerates
or if the moderates and grows and if e
decreases, preventing oscillations
)
t d
e d
T e ( K ) t ( u
d p
+ =
Derivative action
u t K T
de
dt
p d
( ) =
and
t
and
t
K
p
T
d
to
If e = a t
T
d
K
p
and
With e varying linearly, the derivative gives
same or that the proportional give T
d
sg. later
Anticipatory action
Not influence the steady state
PD
Derivative action
u t K T
de
dt
p d
( ) =
and
t
and
t
K
p
T
d
to
If e = a t
T
d
K T
de
dt
K T a K at t T
p d p d p d
= = =
T
d
time taken for the
derivative action in match
proportional action
if e = HV
K
p
and
PID tuning methods
Trial and error methods
Methods based on experiments
Estimate certain dynamic characteristics of the process
with an experiment
Calculate the controller parameters using tables or
formulas derived on the basis of the dynamic
characteristics estimated
Analytical methods based on models
Minimization of error indices
Phase margins and / or gain
Trial and Error
From low values of K
p
And without
integral action or derivative
Increasing K
p
to obtain a form
acceptable response without excessive
or
Slightly increase T
d
to improve
response
Decrease T
i
to eliminate steady state
error
1 Increase K
p
2 Increase T
d
3 Decrease T
i
a
n
d
a
n
d
a
n
d
w w
w
Dynamic response
Change
step
variable
manipulated
time
level
Dynamic response
Process
MV
or
time
CV
and
time
Experimentation
Mathematical model
Dynamic response
Stationary
time
or
and
Transient
Types of processes
Self-regulated No self-regulated
or Integrators
time
or
and
time
or
and
Types of processes
Minimum phase Non-minimum phase
or inverse response
time
or
and
time
or
and
Stability
0 2 4 6 8 10
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
open loop response
0 2 4 6 8 10
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
open loop response
Stable
Unstable
A limited entry is for a limited output
or
and
and
Damping
0 2 4 6 8 10
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
open loop response
0 2 4 6 8 10
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
open loop response
Overdamped
Underdamped
or
and
and
Dynamic response
time
+5% Of final value
or
and
Retardation
time
settlement
dynamic response
Overshoot in% = 100 Mp / Aand
Gain = Aand / Aor
or
and
Aand
Aor
M
p
time
Gain
Positive gain Negative gain
or conversely
time
or
and
time
or
and
dynamic response
or
and
time
period
oscillation
Rise time
90%
s
10%
s
and
s
final value
Mathematical model
Process
or
time
and
time
Model
and
m
time
Discrete Event Systems
Many processes are not continuous
Its variables support only a finite number of
values
The values of the variables change
continuously over time, but in certain
moments.
Control problems and sequential logic
Discrete states
Engine:
Running or
stopped
Deposit:
With fluid or
vacuum
Valve:
Open or
closed
Instrumentation
Closed
circuit
Open
circuit
Minimum level
detector: when
the level drops
the minimum
value is set / or
off the sensor
signal
Instrumentation
Process
PS
TS
Thermostat:
When the
temperature
exceeds a limit
on / off sensor
Pressure
Instrumentation
Presence
detector
Transmi
tter
Receiver
Limit
Instrumentation
On / off valve
Solenoid
Motor starter
~
Combinational Systems
Associated alarms or logical operation
The answers depend only on the inputs
through logic functions and, or, not
IF (logical conditions)
THEN (action)
Combinational logic
AND 1 0
1 1 0
0 0 0
OR 1 0
1 1 1
0 1 0
NOT 1 0
0 1
AND A.B
A + B OR
A NOT
B A B . A
B . A ) B A (
+ =
= +
Morgan
Law
Logic gates
&
A
B
> 1
A
B
A.B
A +
B
= 1
A A
DIN
nomenclature
Logical expressions may be equated to electrical circuits in
which the conditions are true or false in the presence or
absence of signal and the conclusion is expressed in terms
of the output signal
Logic circuits
&
> 1
B
C (C + B).
A
> 1
&
A
B
D
&
C
A.B + C.D
= 1
A A
Contact diagrams
Normally open contact
Normally closed contact
Logical expressions may be equated to electrical circuits
that true or false conditions correspond to closed or open
contacts and the conclusion is expressed in terms of current
flows or not
Contact diagrams
A
A
B
B
A.B
A + B
Contact diagrams
A
B
C
D
+
-
Logical function: (A + B). C. D
Relays
A device that can implement logical actions and
act on physical elements
~
Load
S1
S2
IF (S1 and S2 = closed = closed)
THEN load driven
coil
Ladder diagram
relay coil
S1 S2
X1
Normally open push
NC button
Other items:
timers, counters,
buttons, etc..
+ -
Example
M
~
relay
S1 P1
X1
+ -
S1
P1
X1
X1 X2
X2
S2
S2
Sequential Processes
A
B
Discharge
Succession of stages
of operation with
specific actions and
transition conditions
including
1 Wait 2 Load 3
Operation 4
Download
M
State transition graphs
A
B
M
1
2
3
4
Start
Full tank
Operation
terminated
Empty
tank
States
Transitions
Waiting
Load
Operation
Discharge
PLCs
Programmable devices designed to
implement sequential logic functions
and connected to a process
CPU
Communications
I / O
Feeding
Architecture
Modicon TSX Nano
PC + PLC + Process