Land and Marine Seismic

Acquisition from 2D to 3D
From chapters 7-12 Elements of 3D Seismology by
Chris Liner
Outline-1
CMP METHOD (Harry Mayne)
Seismic sensors
geophones
hydrophones
gimballed geophones and hydrophones
accelerometers
Sources
Explosives
Vibroseis
SEGY data
Outline-2
Acquisition Parameters
Time Sample Rate
Offset Range
Listen Time
Sample Rate and Temporal Aliasing
Geophone Spacing and Spatial Aliasing
Shooting geometry
inline
cross-line


Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Please take a look at the powerpoint presentation for the
radio-telemetry field trip at the following link:
http://www.geol.lsu.edu/Faculty/Juan/ReflectSeismol05/labs
/ppt/Radio-telemetry.ppt
This link has information to complement the explanation on
the CMP method.
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Shotpoint # 1
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Separation between midpoints is
1/2 separation between hydrophone groups
Midpoints
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Shotpoint # 2
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Shotpoint # 3
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Shotpoint # 4
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Shotpoint # 5
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Shotpoint # 6
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Shotpoint # 7
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Shotpoint # 8
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Shotpoint # 8
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Shotpoint # 1
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Shotpoint # 1
Shotpoint # 2
Shotpoint # 1
Shotpoint # 2
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Shotpoint # 1
Shotpoint # 2
Shotpoint # 1
Shotpoint # 2
Shotpoint # 3
Shotpoint # 3
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
Midpoints
Shotpoint # 1
Shotpoint # 2
Shotpoint # 1
Shotpoint # 2
Shotpoint # 3
Shotpoint # 3
Shotpoint # 4
Shotpoint # 4
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Hydrophone groups
Midpoints
Shotpoints # 1-8
1
2
3
4
5
6 7 8 13 8
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Midpoints
1
2
3
4
5
6 7 8 13 8
Fold or Multiplicity is the number of times that the same
midpoint is sampled by different shots and different receivers
Signal-to-Noise increases as the square root of the fold
Fold
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Midpoints
1
2
3
4
5
6 7 8 13 8
Maximum Fold is achieved after the 6th shot
Fold
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
When shotpoint spacing and group spacing are equal then
Maximum fold = number of geophones or hydrophones
Midpoint separation = 1/2 distance between geophones

In a more general case:
Maximum Fold = #recording groups * distance between groups
2 * distance between shots
Midpoint separation = 1/2 smaller of the two: receiver group
spacing or shot spacing


A gather i.e. a subset of the traces from the entire
data set can be of different types:
Shotpoint gather
Common source-receiver offset gather (COS)
Common midpoint gather
Gather Types
Shotpoint Gather
e.g. Shotpoint gather #3

Shotpoint Gather
Shotpoint #3

Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
A shotpoint gather samples various midpoints and a variety of angles
What happens to the reflecting points in a shotpoint
gather when the reflecting interrface dips?
Shotpoint #3

Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
A shotpoint gather samples various midpoints and a variety of angles
What happens to the reflecting points in a shotpoint
gather when the reflecting interface dips?
Shotpoint #3

Hydrophone groups
#1
#2 #3
#4 #5 #6
A shotpoint gather samples different reflecting points at a variety of angles
Midpoints
Reflecting points
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Hydrophone group #4
Common source-receiver offset and
common receiver, shotpoints 1-8
Hydrophone group #4
Common source-receiver offset and
common receiver, shotpoints 1-8
Midpoints
COS means equal reflection angle
In the case of a COS gather where are the true
midpoints when the reflecting, geological interface
has a dip?
Midpoints
COS means equal reflection angle
Midpoints
COS NO LONGER implies equal reflection angles
Actual reflecting points
Common Midpoint Method (CMP Method)
Hydrophone group #4
Common mid-points and
shotpoints 1-8
Midpoints
Hydrophone group #4
Common mid-point and
shotpoints 1-8
Midpoint #6
group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CMP gathers sample varying angles but a common geological midpoint
What happens to a common midpoint gather when the
reflecting interface has a dip?
Midpoint #6
group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CMP gathers sample varying angles but a common geological midpoint
Midpoint #6
group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CMP gathers SAMPLE varying angles but with
a relatively smaller spread of
reflecting points than the shotpoint and
common-offset gathers
True Reflecting Points
A common midpoint gather minimizes the effect of dip while it
helps increase the signal-to-noise ratio
Outline-1
CMP METHOD (Harry Mayne)
Seismic sensors
geophones
hydrophones
gimballed geophones and hydrophones
accelerometers
Sources
Explosives
Vibroseis
SEGY data
Geophones
Convert ground motion into electricity
at a rate of about 1 Volt/inch/sec
GS-100 from Geospace
Natural Resonance Frequency 100 Hz
Geophone layout
Geophone layout
Seismic Sensors
Hydrophones convert changing pressure into Volts
(Volts/bar)
e.g. Preseis 2517 from I/O 1V/microPascal
Gimballed Geophone-hydrophone combinations for
sea-bottom work
Sea-Array 4 from Geospace
Streamer layout
Accelerometers
Convert ground acceleration into Volts
d(dx/dt)
dt

E.g. VectorSeis from I/O
3-component digital accelerometer (requires battery)
full-scale at 3.3 m/s2; noise level 0.44 microm/s2
140db = 20 log (3.3/4*10^-7)

Outline-1
CMP METHOD (Harry Mayne)
Seismic sensors
geophones
hydrophones
gimballed geophones and hydrophones
accelerometers
Sources
Explosives
Vibroseis
SEGY data
Vibroseis Method (Liner, 2004;
p.157, para. 4, )
An output sweep
(e.g., 10-80 Hz)
enters the earth
..and undergoes various reflections
+
+
=
...something too complicated to draw
Field correlation unravels the raw data into .
12 elephants dancing in unison (LITHOPROBE, CANADA)
A vibrator truck
Vibroseis images from the Lithoprobe Project, Canada
www.lithoprobe.ca
Explosives
Noble Explochem Limited
NSF R/VIB NBPalmer- February/March 2003
GI Watergun Array
Sercel G. GUN 150 cu. In. firing
at 2,000 p.s.i.
Link to movie of this G. Gun working in
a pool
Outline-1
CMP METHOD (Harry Mayne)
Seismic sensors
geophones
hydrophones
gimballed geophones and hydrophones
accelerometers
Sources
Explosives
Vibroseis
SEGY data
SEGY data
One line at a time

400 byte tape header
3200 byte
EBCDIC header
240 byte trace header
240 byte tape header
240 byte tape header
DATA
DATA
DATA
Outline-2
Acquisition Parameters
Time Sample Rate
Offset Range
Listen Time
Sample Rate and Temporal Aliasing
Geophone Spacing and Spatial Aliasing
Shooting geometry
inline
cross-line


Sample Rates
What is the fewest number of times I need to sample
this waveform per second?
?
?
?
Sample Rates
Sample Rates
Sample Rates
Sample Rates
What is the fewest number of times I need to sample
this waveform per second?
At least twice per wavelength or period!
OTHERWISE .
Undersampled waveforms
True frequency (f -true)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Reconstructed frequency
(f -aliased)
f A f A
Oversampled waveforms
= True frequency (f -true)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Reconstructed frequency
frequency is unaliased
Nyquist frequency
Nyquist frequency = 1 / twice the sampling rate
Minimum sampling rate must be at least twice the desired frequency
E.g., 1000 samples per second for 500Hz,
2000 samples per second for 1000 Hz
Oversampled waveforms
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Nyquist frequency
In practice we are best oversampling by double the required minimum
i.e. 1000 samples per second for a maximum of 500 Hz
i.e., 2000 samples per second for a maximum of 1000 Hz
Oversampling is relatively cheap.
Outline-2
Acquisition Parameters
Sample Rate and Temporal Aliasing
Offset Range
Listen Time
Geophone Spacing and Spatial Aliasing

Offset Range
One-layer earth of a semi-infinite layer
Target depth
Maximum shot-receiver
offset
Maximum shot-receiver offset >= target depth.
Near critical distance
Offset Range
Multi-layered earth
Target depth
Maximum shot-receiver
offset
Outline-2
Acquisition Parameters
Time Sample Rate
Offset Range
Listen Time
Sample Rate and Temporal Aliasing
Geophone Spacing and Spatial Aliasing
Shooting geometry
inline
cross-line


Listen Time
.Twice target time to be sage
Outline-2
Acquisition Parameters
Time Sample Rate
Offset Range
Listen Time
Sample Rate and Temporal Aliasing
Geophone Spacing and Spatial Aliasing
Shooting geometry
inline
cross-line


Spatial frequency, or wavenumber (k) is the number of cycles per
unit distance.

One spatial cycle or wavenumber = frequency/velocity.
Each wavenumber must be sampled at least twice per wavelength
(two CMPs per wavelength)
Spatial aliasing


1
2( )
k
N
CMPspacing
=
IN PRACTICE each wavenumber must be sampled at least four times per minimum
wavelength (two CMPs per wavelength)
Spatial aliasing


However, dip (theta) as well as frequency and
velocity event changes the number of cycles per
distance, so
4sin
lambda
CMPinterval
u
=
Liner, 9.7,p.192
Spatial aliasing


4sin
lambda
CMPinterval
u
=
u u
x
V t
limit
sin
V t
x
u =
For aliasing NOT to occur, delta(t) must be less than T/2
Spatial aliasing


limit
sin
2
VT
x
u =
lim
2sin
it
VT
x
u
=
Geophone Spacing and Spatial Aliasing
K=0
1/4 wavelength shift per trace
total shift across array=3/4 wavelength
K=+ or -ve?
1/4 wavelength shift per trace
total shift across array=3/4 wavelength
K=?
1/2 wavelength shift per trace
total shift across array=3/2 wavelength
K=0
3/4 wavelength shift per trace
total shift across array=2 1/4 wavelength
Spatial aliasing


Degrades (string of pearls) stacked sections
Degrades migration
Signal-to-Noise


Improves with stacking:
greater fold
greater repetition of shots
/ S N CMP fold vertical stack
Outline-2
Acquisition Parameters
Time Sample Rate
Offset Range
Listen Time
Sample Rate and Temporal Aliasing
Geophone Spacing and Spatial Aliasing
Shooting geometry
inline
cross-line




Fundamental Parameters for land 3D shooting
( , , )
( , , )
geophone
g g g
shot
s s s
X x y z
X x y z
=
=


Common Midpoint
1
( )
2
CMP shot geophone
X X X = +


Source-Receiver Offset
( )
offset shot geophone
X X X = 2D
offset shot geophone
X X X =
3D


Azimuth (3D)
1
tan
shot geophone
shot geophone
x x
y y
|

| |

=
|
|

\ .
Inline geometry


Matlab code
Outline-2
Acquisition Parameters
Time Sample Rate
Offset Range
Listen Time
Sample Rate and Temporal Aliasing
Geophone Spacing and Spatial Aliasing
Shooting geometry
inline
cross-line


Cross-line geometry


Matlab code
Spatial aliasing


Degrades (string of pearls) stacked sections
Degrades migration