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Keith, L. H., Energy and Environmental Acid Rain Chemistry, Volume 2, Ann Arbor Science Publisher, USA, 1982. Chapter 8, page 123 - 145
Atmospheric precipitation
Atmospheric precipitation is comprised of: Dry components: particulate and gases Wet components: rain, snow, fog Factors that affects chemical characteristic of atmospheric precipitate: Ocean salts Gaseous air pollutants Natural air-borne dust Rainfall rate, frequency, Soil particles and distribution
Learning Objectives
Develop good understandings about: What is acid rain How it is formed What problems might arise if acid rain occurs
Sulfur compounds (and maybe also nitrogen compounds) can be transported several hundred kilometers per day in the atmosphere Chlorine emission may also result in acidity (hydrochloric acid HCl), but usually only close to emission sources
Nitrogen oxides are emitted from both stationary and mobile sources, especially automobiles
~56% of NOx was caused from the burning of fossil fuels by stationary sources
40% came from transportation-related sources The combustion of fossil fuel in the US results in ~50 million metric tons of SOx and NOx being emitted to the atmosphere per year
In 1977: SOx accounted for 14% (27.4 million metric tons) of the total air pollution NOx accounted for 12% (13 million metric tons) of the total air pollution result in acid rain, especially in northeastern US and Scandinavia
Research performed
Objectives:
Research performed
Sites to be analyzed? Sampling methods? Time? Chemical analysis? Methods and pollutants/compounds to be analyzed? Ecological analysis? Type of indicators and organism to be investigated?
Statistical methods?
Possible interpretation?
The sites
The sites were chosen as a representative of geographical condition, vegetation, and land uses The sites includes pollution source-areas, and potential receptor-areas where ecological effects may be important The sites represent a small network, each site being close enough for interpretative purposes, e.g. to infer possible atmospheric transport between source sites and receptor sites
Sampling
Separate samples of wet and dry fallout were collected A two-bucket system with movable lid were used, designed to expose the wet bucket and cover the dry bucket during periods of wet precipitation (and vice versa) A sensor, mounted on the frame, reacts electrically to the onset of precipitation that causing the lid to move This equipment (which has been modified to improved performances) is now used by the US National Atmospheric Deposition Program as a standard sampling system
Sampling and subsequent chemical analysis were performed after each main storm event at the determined sites
Chemical analysis
pH of each samples were measured in the field with Corning Digital 112 Research meter, calibrated with buffer ph 4 7 Samples were filtered through 0.45- Millipore prior to all analysis Chemical digestion were done with boiling nitric acid and hydrogen peroxides Cations were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry using Varian Model AA6
Chemical analysis
Chloride was determined using spectrophotometry
Sulfate was determined using barium chlorinated spectrophotometric method
Sulfuric acid in rain may be originated from air pollution from oil fields upwind, or the use of ammonium sulfate fertilizer in agricultural area
Results
A strong correlation of [H+] with [NO3] in one particular region
Results
Ionic concentrations varied widely between storms at a given sites
Total ocean salt deposition is dependent upon total rain or snow on the site
Plant or fish sensitivity to acidity may be determined by threshold pH Accelerated soil leaching and rock weathering are more likely to be determined by increases in the total deposition of acidic materials