UNIT - II

CENTRE LATHE &

SPECIAL PURPOSE LATHES
Centre lathe, constructional features
Cutting tool geometry, various operations
Taper Turning Methods
Thread Cutting Methods
Special attachments
Machining time and power estimation.
Capstan and turret lathes automats single
spindle, Swiss type, automatic screw type, multi
spindle
Turret Indexing mechanism
Bar feed mechanism.

LATHE
A lathe is a father of all machine tools.
The main function of lathe is to remove metal
from a piece of work to obtain the required shape
size.
Lathe Work
Types of Lathe
1. Speed lathe:
a. Wood working b. Polishing c. Spinning

2. Engine Lathe or Centre lathe
a. Belt drive engine lathe.
b. Gear head lathe.

3. Bench lathe
4. Tool-room lathe
5. Capstan and Turret lathe
6. Automatic lathe

7. Special purpose lathe
a. Missile lathe b. Gap bed lathe c. T- lathe d. Wheel lathe
e. Duplicating (or) Copying lathe.
Specifications of Lathe
1. The length of bed :
It indicates the approximate floor space occupied by the lathe.
2. The length between centres :
It is the maximum length of work that can be mounted between the
lathe centres.
Specifications of Lathe
3. The height of centres from the bed :
It is the distance between top surface
of the bed and the imaginary center
line passing through live centre and
dead centre.
4. The maximum bar diameter : It is the
maximum diameter of work that will
pass through the hole of the head
stock spindle.
5. The swing diameter of work over bed
: It is the largest diameter of work
that will revolve without touching
the bed. It is twice the height of the
centres from the bed.
6. The swing diameter of work over the
carriage : It is the largest diameter
of work that will revolve over the
lathe saddle. It is smaller than the
swing diameter over bed.
BED
SWING DIAMETER
OVER BED
HEIGHT OF CENTRE
FROM BED
SWING DIAMETER
OVER CARRIAGE
CARRIAGE
Lathe
General view of a typical lathe, showing various components.
Parts of Lathe


The lathe bed forms the base of the
machine.
The headstock is mounted on the left end,
the carriage in the middle and the tailstock
at the right end of bed. The carriage and the
tailstock moves over the bed.
On the top of the bed, there are two guide
ways namely inner and outer guide ways.
Carriage slides on the outer guide ways
where as tail stock slides on the inner ways.
The bed should be very strong to resist the
cutting forces and vibrations.
The bed has ribbed construction. The guide
ways are very accurate for getting accuracy
in jobs. The bed is made of cast iron alloyed
with nickel and chromium.
The guide ways of the bed may be flat and
inverted V having an included angle of
90.
Bed
Bed
Made of Cast Iron
Backbone of Lathe
Ways
Hardened sliding surfaces.
Do not damage the ways!
Bed Cross Braces Bed cross-section
The headstock is the powered end and is
mounted on the inner ways at the left end
of the bed.
It has a hollow spindle made of carbon or
nickel chrome steel. The front end of the
hole is tapered for holding centres, collets
and other tools having a standard tapered
shanks. There are two types of spindle
nose namely threaded nose and flanged
nose. The threaded nose is commonly used
which carries chucks and face plates.
In a lathe it is necessary to vary the speed
of the work to suit different machining
conditions. The usual methods to vary the
speed of a lathe spindles are (1) By belt
drive on cone pulley with or without a
back gear arrangement, (2) By all gear
drive using sliding gears and (3) By
variable speed motor.
Headstock
Headstock belt drive
Back Gear arrangement
Headstock
Nose of the head stock, where various work
holding devices may be fitted
Headstock
3 Jaw Chuck
All 3 jaws move together.
Headstock
4 Jaw Chuck
All 4 Jaws
move
independently

Very accurate
Chuck Wrench


Never let me
catch you
doing this!
Headstock
Spindle Speed Levers
Quick Change Gearbox
Used to select the
rate of travel for
turning, facing,
and threading.
Lead Screw and Feed Rod


< Lead Screw

< Feed Rod
Thread Chasing Dial



References the
rotation of the lead
screw.

The tailstock is located on the inner ways at the right end of the bed.
It supports the other end of the work when it is being machined
between centers, and
It holds a tool for performing operations such as drilling, reaming
The tailstock is non-rotating but on hardened ways, it can be
moved, to the left or right, to adjust to the length of the work. It can
also be offset for cutting small angle tapers.
Tailstock
Tailstock
Supports
long
workpieces
when
machining.
60 degree
rotating
center point.
Drill Chuck
Turn the
tailstock
handwheel
to advance
the ram.
Carriage



< Saddle

< Apron
The carriage can be moved left or right either by hand wheel or
power feed. This provides the motion along the Z-axis.
During this travel turning cuts are made.
Carriage consists of the following parts: (1) Saddle, (2) Cross-slide,
(3) Compound-slide or compound rest, (4) Tool post, and (5) Apron.
Carriage
The saddle is an H-shaped casting that fits over the bed and
slides along the bed ways.
It carries the cross-slide and tool post.
Saddle
Saddle
H-shaped casting mounted on top of lathe ways, provides means of
mounting cross-slide and apron
The cross slide is mounted on the carriage and can be moved in and
out (X-axis) perpendicular to the carriage motion.
This is the part that moves when facing cuts are made with power
feed, or at any time a cut must be made square with the Z-axis.
This, or the compound, is also used to set the depth of cut when
turning.
The cross slide can be moved by its hand wheel or by power feed.
Cross Slide
Cross Slide
Cross Slide

< Used for
facing.
The compound rest is fitted on the top of the cross-slide, is used to
support the cutting tool.
It can be swiveled to any angle for taper turning operations and is
moved manually.
It can be moved in and out by its hand wheel for facing or for setting
the depth of cut.
It can also be rotated 360 degrees and fed by its hand wheel at any
angle.
The compound does not have any power feed but it always moves
longitudinally with the cross slide and the carriage.
Compound rest
Compound Rest
Compound Rest
Used for:

Short
steep
tapers

Accurate
shoulder
lengths
The tool post is mounted on the compound rest.
This can be any of several varieties but in its simplest form is merely
a slotted cylinder, which can be moved, left or right in the T-slot in
the compound and clamped in place.
It can also be rotated so as to present the cutter to the work at
whatever angle is best for the job.

Tool Post
(a) A tool post for single-point tools and (b) a quick change indexing square turret,
which can hold up to four tools.
Tool Post
Tool Post
Apron
The apron attached to the front of the carriage, holds most of the
control levers. These include the levers, which engage and reverse the
feed lengthwise (Z-axis) or crosswise (X-axis) and the lever which
engages the threading gears.
The apron is fastened to the saddle, houses the gears and mechanisms
required to move the carriage and cross-slide automatically.
The apron hand wheel can be turned manually to move the carriage
along the Lathe bed. This hand wheel is connected to a gear that
meshes in a rack fastened to the Lathe bed.
The automatic feed lever engages a clutch that provides the automatic
feed to the carriage
Back Gear Mechanism
Tumbler Gear Mechanism
Quick change gear box
Quick change gear box
Lathe Accessories
Lathe Accessories
Divided into two categories
Work-holding, -supporting, and driving
devices
Lathe centers, chucks, faceplates
Mandrels, steady and follower rests
Lathe dogs, drive plates
Cutting-tool-holding devices
Straight and offset toolholders
Threading toolholders, boring bars
Turret-type toolposts
Lathe Centers
Work to be turned between centers must
have center hole drilled in each end
Provides bearing surface
Support during cutting
Most common have
solid Morse taper shank
60 centers, steel with carbide tips
Care to adjust and lubricate occasionally
Lathe Centers
Revolving Tailstock Centers
Replaced solid dead centers for most
machining operations
Used to support work held in chuck or
when work is being machined between
centers
Contains antifriction bearings which allow
center to revolve with workpiece
No lubrication required between center and
work
Types: revolving dead center, long point
center, and changeable point center
Revolving Tailstock Centers
Microset Adjustable Center
Fits into tailstock spindle
Provides means of aligning lathe
centers or producing slight tapers on
work machined between centers
Eccentric slide (dovetail) allows
center to be adjusted limited amount
to each side of center
Self-Driving Live Center
Mounted in headstock spindle
Used when entire length of workpiece is
being machined in one operation
Chuck or lathe dog could not be used to drive
work
Grooves ground around circumference of
lathe center point provide drive
Work usually soft material such as aluminum
Chucks
Used extensively for holding work for
lathe machining operations
Work large or unusual shape
Most commonly used lathe chucks
Three-jaw universal
Four-jaw independent
Collet chuck
Three-jaw Universal Chuck
Holds round and hexagonal work
Grasps work quickly and accurate within
few thousandths/inch
Three jaws move simultaneously when
adjusted by chuck wrench
Caused by scroll plate into which all three
jaws fit
Two sets of jaw: outside chucking and
inside chucking
Three-jaw Universal Chuck
Three jaw self centering chuck
Four-Jaw Independent Chuck
Used to hold round, square,
hexagonal, and irregularly shaped
workpieces
Has four jaws
Each can be adjusted independently by
chuck wrench
Jaws can be reversed to hold work by
inside diameter
Four-Jaw Independent Chucks
With the four jaw chuck, each jaw can be adjusted independently
by rotation of the radially mounted threaded screws.
Although accurate mounting of a workpiece can be time
consuming, a four-jaw chuck is often necessary for non-cylindrical
workpieces.
Four jaw independent chuck
Headstock Spindle Types
1. Threaded spindle nose
Screws on in a clockwise direction
2. Tapered spindle nose
Held by lock nut that tightens on chuck
3. Cam-lock spindle nose
Held by tightening cam-locks using T-
wrench
Chuck aligned by taper on spindle nose

Threaded Spindle Nose
Tapered Spindle Nose
Cam Lock Spindle Nose
Collet Chucks
Most accurate chuck
Used for high-precision work
Spring collets available to hold round,
square, or hexagon-shaped
workpieces
Each collet has range of only few
thousandths of an inch over or under
size stamped on collet
Spring Collet Chucks
Spring-collet chuck
One form: Handwheel draws collet into
tapered adapter
Another form: Uses chuck wrench to
tighten collet on workpiece
Can hold larger work than draw-in type
Collets are used when smooth bar stock, or workpieces that have been
machined to a given diameter, must be held more accurately than
normally can be achieved in a regular three or four jaw chuck.
Collets are relatively thin tubular steel bushings that are split into three
longitudinal segments over about two thirds of their length.
The smooth internal surface of the split end is shaped to fit the piece of
stock that is to be held.
The external surface at the split end is a taper that fits within an internal
taper of a collet sleeve placed in the spindle hole.
When the collet is pulled inward into the spindle, by means of the draw
bar that engages threads on the inner end of the collet, the action of the
two mating tapers squeezes the collet segments together, causing them
to grip the workpiece.
A collet (a) and a collet mounting assembly (b) are shown here.
Collet chuck:
Collets
Figure 23.7 (a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in type collet. The
workpiece is placed in the collet hole, and the conical surfaces of the collet are
forced inwards by pulling it with a draw bar into the sleeve. (c) A push-out type
collet. (d) Workholding of a workpiece on a face plate.
Collet chuck:
Collet chuck:
Spring Collet Chucks
|
Spring Collet Chucks
Magnetic Chucks
Used to hold iron or steel parts that are
too thin or may be damaged if held in
conventional chuck
Fitted to an adapter mounted on
headstock spindle
Used only for light cuts and for special
grinding applications
Magnetic Chucks
Faceplates
Used to hold work too large or shaped so
it cannot be held in chuck or between
centers
Usually equipped with several slots to
permit use of bolts to secure work
Angle plate used so axis of workpiece may be
aligned with lathe centers
Counterbalance fastened to faceplate
when work mounted off center
Prevent imbalance and resultant vibrations
Faceplates
Faceplates
A face plate consists of a circular disc bored out and thread to fit the
nose of the spindle.
This has radial, plain and T slots for holding work by bolts and clamps.
Face plates are used for holding workpieces which cannot be held
conveniently held between centers or chucks.
Face plate
A face plate
Lathe accessories
This is a cast iron plate having two faces machined to make them
absolutely at right angles to each other.
Holes and slots are provided on both faces so that it may be clamped
on the face plate and can hold the workpiece on the other face by
clamps and bolts.
Angle plates are used in conjunction with a face plate when the
holding surface of the workpiece should be kept horizontal, as for
example, in machining a flange of a pipe elbow.
When eccentric jobs are bolted on the face plate, a balance weight or
counter weight must be added.
Angle plates
Lathe accessories
Steadyrest
Used to support long work held in chuck
or between lathe centers
Prevent springing
Located on and aligned by ways of the
lathe
Positioned at any point along lathe bed
Three jaws tipped with plastic, bronze or
rollers may be adjusted to support any
work diameter with steadyrest capacity
Steadyrest
A steady rest consists of cast iron base, which may be made to slide on
the lathe bed ways and clamped at any desired position where support is
necessary.
This is so designed that the upper position is hinged at one end which
facilitates setting and removal of the workpiece without disturbing the
position of the steady rest.
There are three jaws on the steady rest, two on the lower base and one
on the upper frame, the jaws may be adjusted radially by rotating
individual screws to accommodate work of different diameters.
The main function of the steady rest is to provide support to a long
slender work.
For a very long work more than one steady rest may be used.
However the carriage cannot be fed to the full length of the work when
steady rest is used.
Steady rest
Lathe accessories
The steady rest supports long, small diameter stock that otherwise could
not be turned. The steady rest can also replace the tailstock to allow for
cutting tool access at the outboard end of your workpiece.
To mount the steady rest:
1. Secure to bedway from below with the locking plate.
2. A single hex bolt, along with a nut and washer, is used to hold the steady
rest in place. See Figure.
3. The bearing surfaces on the steady rest should receive periodic
lubrication while in use to prevent premature wear.

Steady rest
Lathe accessories
To adjust the Steady Rest:
1. Loosen the lock nuts.
2. Open the sliding fingers by turning the knurled screws until they fit
around the workpiece. Secure the steady rest in position.
3. Tighten the knurled screws so that the fingers are snug, but not tight
against the workpiece. Tighten the setscrews and the lock nuts.
4. Lubricate the brass points with machine oil.
Steady rest
Lathe accessories
Follower Rest
Mounted on saddle
Travels with carriage to prevent work
from springing up and away from
cutting tool
Cutting tool generally positioned just
ahead of follower rest
Provide smooth bearing surface for two
jaws of follower rest
Follower Rest
A follower rest consists of a C like casting having two adjustable jaws
which support the work.
The rest is bolted to the back end of the carriage and moves with it.
Before setting the follower rest, the end of the workpiece is machined
slightly wider than the jaws to provide the true bearing surface.
The tool is slightly in advance position than the jaws, and the tool is fed
longitudinally be the carriage, the jaws always follow the tool giving
continuous support to the workpiece.
The follower rest prevents the job from springing away when the cut is
made and is used in finish turning operation.
Follower rest:
Lathe accessories
The follow rest is normally used with small diameter stock to prevent the
workpiece from springing under pressure from the turning tool. To
install the follow rest:
1. The follow rest is secured to the saddle with two cap screws. See Figure
.
2. The bearing surfaces on the follow rest are similar to those on the steady
rest, and should be lubricated to prevent premature wear.

Follower rest:
Lathe accessories
Mandrel
Holds internally machined workpiece
between centers so further machining
operations are concentric with bore
Several types, but most common
Plain mandrel
Expanding mandrel
Gang mandrel
Stub mandrel
Mandrels to Hold Workpieces for
Turning
Figure 23.8 Various types of mandrels to hold workpieces for turning. These mandrels
usually are mounted between centers on a lathe. Note that in (a), both the cylindrical
and the end faces of the workpiece can be machined, whereas in (b) and (c), only the
cylindrical surfaces can be machined.
Plain Mandrel
Expanding Mandrel
Gang Mandrel
Stub Mandrel
For accurate turning operations or in cases where the long work surface
is not truly cylindrical, the workpiece can be turned between centers.
Initially the workpiece has a conical center hole drilled at each end to
provide location for the lathe centers.
Before supporting the workpiece between the centers (one in the
headstock and one in the tailstock), a clamping device called a dog is
secured to the workpiece.
The dog is arranged so that the tip is inserted into a slot in the drive plate
mounted on the main spindle, ensuring that the workpiece will rotate with
the spindle.
Work holding between Centers
Lathe centers support the workpiece between the headstock and
the tailstock.
The center used in the headstock spindle is called the live
center. It rotates with the headstock spindle.
The dead center is located in the tailstock spindle. This center
usually does not rotate and must be hardened and lubricated to
withstand the wear of the revolving work.
The workpiece must have perfectly drilled and countersunk holes
to receive the centers.
The center must have a 60-degree point.
Work holding between Centers


For accurate machining, cylindrical parts can be turned between centers.

Hardened dead centers are mounted
in the tailstock; they do not rotate with
the workpiece and must be lubricated.

Hardened live centers are mounted in the
tailstock; they rotate with the workpiece and do
not need lubricatio
Work holding between Centers
Carriers or lathe dogs and catch plates are used to hold workpiece when
it is held between centers.
Carriers or lathe dogs are attached to the end of the workpiece by
setscrews; catch plates are either screwed or bolted to the nose of head
stock spindle.
A projecting pin from the carriers fits into the slots provided in the catch
plate
Carriers or lathe dogs and Catch plates or Drive plates
A catch plate with live centre
Lathe accessories
Lathe Dogs
Drives work machined between
centers
Has opening to receive work and
setscrew to fasten the dog to work
Tail of dog fits into slot on driveplate
and provides drive to workpiece
Made in variety of sizes and types to
suit various workpieces
Standard bent-tail lathe dog
Most commonly used for
round workpieces
Available with square-head
setscrews of headless
setscrews
Standard bent-tail lathe dog
Bent tail engages in slot on
drive plate
Straight-tail lathe dog
Driven by stud in driveplate
Used in precision turning
Safety clamp lathe dog
Used to hold variety of work
Wide range of adjustment
Heavy Duty Lathe Dog
Wider range than others
Used on all shapes
Cutting-Tool-Holding Devices
Available in three styles
Left-hand offset
Right-hand offset
Straight
Each has square hole to accommodate
square toolbit held in place by setscrew
Angle of approximately 15 to 30 to base
of toolholder
Left-Hand Offset Toolholder
Offset to the right
Designed for machining work close to
chuck or faceplate and cutting right to left
Designated by letter L
Right-Hand Offset Toolholder
Offset to the left
Designed for machining work close to the
tailstock and cutting left to right
Also for facing operations
Designated by letter R
Straight Toolholder
General-purpose type
Used for taking cuts in either direction
and for general machining operations
Designated by letter S
Carbide Toolholder
Has square hole parallel to base of
toolholder to accommodate carbide-tipped
toolbits
Holds toolbit with little or no back rake
Designated by letter C
Cutting-Off (Parting) Tools
Used when work must be grooved or
parted off
Long, thin cutting-off blade locked
securely in toolholder by either cam
lock or locking nut
Three types of parting toolholders
Left-hand
Right-hand
Straight
Threading Toolholder
Designed to hold special form-relieved
thread-cutting tool
Has accurately ground 60 angle
Maintained throughout life of tool
Only top of cutting surface sharpened
when becomes dull
Styles of Boring Toolholders
Held in standard toolpost
Light boring toolholder
Used for small holes and light cuts
Medium boring toolholder
Suitable for heavier cuts
May be held at 45 or 90 to axis of bar
Mounted on compound rest of lathe
Heavy-duty boring bar holder
Three bars of different diameters
May be held at 45 or 90 to axis of bar

Compound Rest
Tooling Systems
Standard, or round, toolpost
Generally supplied with conventional
engine lathe
Fits into T-slot of compound rest
Provides means of holding and adjusting
type of toolholder or cutting tool required
Concave ring and the wedge or rocker
provide for adjustment of cutting-tool
height
Conventional ToolPosts
After deciding on the machine tool and cutting tool, the following main
cutting conditions have to be considered:
Cutting speed
Depth of cut
Feed rate
Feed, speed, and depth of cut have a direct effect on productivity, tool
life, and machine requirements. Therefore these elements must be
carefully chosen for each operation. Whether the objective is rough
cutting or finishing will have a great influence on the cutting
conditions selected.
Cutting Conditions
In belt driven lathes the cutting speed may be changed using different
pulley combinations
Cutting Conditions (Changing cutting speed)
In some lathes feed can be changed automatically using the levers in different
positions as given in the chart
Cutting Conditions (Changing feed)
Cutting Conditions (Changing feed)
When roughing, the goal is usually maximum stock removal in minimum time with minor
consideration given to tool life and surface finish.
The first is to use a heavy feed because this makes the most efficient use of power and, with
less tool contact, tends to create less chatter.
There are some exceptions where a deeper cut is more advantageous than a heavy feed,
especially where longer tool life is needed.
Increasing the depth of cut will increase tool life over an increase in feed rate. But, as long as
it is practical and chip formation is satisfactory, it is better to choose a heavy feed rate.
Even more important, tool life is greatly reduced at high cutting speeds unless coated carbide
or other modern tool materials are used, and these also have practical speed limits.
Tool life is decreased most at high speeds, although some decrease in tool life occurs when
feed or depth of cut is increased. This stands to reason, because more material will be
removed in less time.
It becomes choice then, between longer tool life and increased stock removal. Since
productivity generally outweighs tool costs, the most practical cutting conditions are usually
those, which first, are most productive, and second, will achieve reasonable tool life.
Roughing Cuts
When taking finishing cuts, feed rate and depth of cut are of minor
concern.
The feed rate cannot exceed that which is necessary to achieve the
required surface finish and the depth of cut will be light.
However, the rule about speed will still apply. The speeds will generally
be higher for finish cuts, but they must still be within the operating speed
of the tool material.
Tool life is of greater concern for finish cuts. It is often better to strive for
greater tool life at the expense of material removed per minute.
If tool wear can be minimized, especially on a long cut, greater accuracy
can be achieved, and matching cuts which result from tool changes, can
be avoided.
One way to minimize tool wear during finishing cuts is to use the
maximum feed rate that will still produce the required surface finish. The
less time the tool spends on the cut, the less tool wear can occur.
Another way to minimize tool wear during a long finishing cut is to
reduce the speed slightly.
Coolant, spray mist, or air flow, will also extend tool life because it
reduces the heat of the tool.
Finishing Cuts:
Lathe
Cutting
Operations
Miscellaneous cutting operations
that can be performed on a lathe.
The tools used, their shape, and the
processing parameters are
described throughout this chapter.
Turning Operation
Figure 23.3 Schematic illustration of the basic turning operation, showing depth-of-
cut, d; feed, f; and spindle rotational speed, N in rev/min. Cutting speed is the surface
speed of the workpiece at the tool tip.
Designations for a Right-Hand
Cutting Tool
Designations for a right-hand cutting tool. Right-hand means the tool travels form
right to left, as shown in Fig
Right-hand Cutting Tool and
Insert
(a) Schematic illustration of right-hand cutting tool. The various angles on these
tools and their effects on machining are described .Although these tools
traditionally have been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been
replaced largely with (b) inserts made of carbides and other materials of various
shapes and sizes.
General Recommendations for
Tool Angles in Turning
Three Important Elements
Rotating Speed
It expresses with the number of rotations (rpm) of the chuck of a lathe. When the rotating
speed is high, processing speed becomes quick, and a processing surface is finely finished.
However, since a little operation mistakes may lead to the serious accident, it is better to set
low rotating speed at the first stage.
Cutting Depth
The cutting depth of the tool affects to the processing speed and the roughness of surface.
When the cutting depth is big, the processing speed becomes quick, but the surface
temperature becomes high, and it has rough surface. Moreover, a life of byte also becomes
short. If you do not know a suitable cutting depth, it is better to set to small value.
Feed (Sending Speed )
The sending speed of the tool also affects to the processing speed and the roughness of surface.
When the sending speed is high, the processing speed becomes quick. When the sending speed
is low, the surface is finished beautiful. There are 'manual sending' which turns and operates
a handle, and 'automatic sending' which advances a byte automatically. A beginner must use
the manual sending. Because serious accidents may be caused, such as touching the rotating
chuck around the byte in automatic sending,.
Summary of
Turning
Parameters and
Formulas
General Recommendations for Turning Operations
Range of Surface
Roughnesses in
Machining
Processes
The range of surface
roughness's obtained in various
machining processes. Note the
wide range within each group,
especially in turning and boring.
Setting of a Cutting Tool
In case a cutting tool is fixed to a table, thin metal plates are put
between the tool and the table, and the height of the edge is adjusted to the
center of material.
In the case of using the general cutting tool, when the edge is higher
than the center of material, the edge of a blade does not hit the material,
and it cannot cut at all. Conversely, if the edge is low, it becomes impossible
to cut the center of material. Moreover, the scale of a handle does not have
correct value, then accurate processing becomes impossible.
Though the height of the cutting tool is adjusted in careful, we cannot
unite with the center of material completely. Therefore, we have to set the
tool to the direction, that the edge is easy to touch the material. The general
cutting tool and the parting tool have to be set a few low position. The
boring bar has to set a few high position.
Turning
Turning is a metal cutting process used for the generation of
cylindrical surfaces.
Normally the workpiece is rotated on a spindle and the tool is fed
into it radially, axially, or both ways simultaneously, to give the
required surface.
The term turning, in the general sense, refers to the generation of
any cylindrical surface with a single point tool.
Turning is the most commonly used operation in Lathe. By turning
operation excess material from the work piece is removed to
produce a cylindrical or cone shaped surface.
Two of the common types of turning are: Straight turning and taper
turning.
Lathe operations
In this operation the work is held in the spindle and is rotated whole
the tool is fed past the work piece in a direction parallel to the axis of
rotation.
The surface generated is a cylindrical surface.
Straight turning
Minimize tool overhang
Support workpiece rigidly
Use machine tools with high stiffness and high damping
capacity
When tools begin to vibrate and chatter, modify one or
more of the process parameters, such as tool geometry,
cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, or use of cutting
fluid
Chip Collection Systems
Drop them on a conveyor belt
Dragging the chips from a setting tank
Using augers with feed screws
Magnetic conveyors
Vacuum methods

Guidelines for Turning Operations
Other related lathe operations
Other related lathe operations
Related turning operations: (a) chamfering, (b) parting, (c) threading, (d) boring, (e) drilling,
(f) knurling.
Other related lathe operations
Facing: Facing is an operation for generating flat surface at the ends of a work piece.
In this operation the feed given is in a direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
First, clamp the part securely in a lathe chuck.
Then, install a facing tool
Bring the tool approximately into position, but slightly off of the part.
Always turn the spindle by hand before turning it on. This ensures that no parts
interfere with the rotation of the spindle.
Move the tool outside the part and adjust the saddle to take the desired depth of
cut.
Then, feed the tool across the face with the cross slide.
After facing, there is a very sharp edge on the part. Break the edge with a file.
Other related lathe operations
Facing
Shouldering
Parting
Thread Cutting
Drilling
Boring
Chamfering: It is a operation of beveling the extreme end of a
work piece. This done to remove unwanted metal projections at the
ends and to protect end of the work piece from being damaged and
to have a better look.
Knurling: Knurling is process of embossing a diamond shaped
pattern on the surface of the work piece. The purpose of knurling
is to provide an effective gripping surface on a work piece to
prevent it from slipping when operated by hand. Knurling is done
with a special tool called knurling tool. This tool consists of a set
of hardened steel rollers in a holder with teeth cut on their surface
in definite pattern.

Other related lathe operations
Grooving or Recessing Operations: Grooving or recessing operations is the
operation of reducing the diameter of a workpiece over a very narrow
surface. Grooving or recessing operations, sometimes also called necking
operations, are often done on workpiece shoulders to ensure the correct fit
for mating parts.
Drilling/reaming/ Boring: These are operations to accurately make holes on a
workpiece. These operations uses the tailstock of the lathe. The tool is held on
the tailstock and is fed toward the rotating work piece.

Other related lathe operations
Other related lathe operations
Parting: In. this operation a flat nose tool is used to cut the work piece, with feed in
the direction perpendicular to the axis of rotation. A parting tool is deeper and
narrower than a turning tool. It is designed for making narrow grooves and for
cutting off parts. When a parting tool is installed, ensure that it hangs over the tool
holder enough that the holder will clear the workpiece (but no more than that).
Ensure that the parting tool is perpendicular to the axis of rotation and that the tip is
the same height as the center of the part. A good way to do this is to hold the tool
against the face of the part. Set the height of the tool, lay it flat against the face of
the part, then lock the tool in place. When the cut is deep, the side of the part can rub
against sides of the groove, so it's especially important to apply cutting fluid. In this
clip, a part is cut off from a piece of stock.

A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in
diameter of a work piece measured along its length.
In a Lathe taper turning is an operation to produce a conical
surface by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical job.
Taper turning can be done by the following ways;
By a form tool.
By setting over the tailstock.
By swiveling the compound rest.
By taper turning attachment.
By compound feed.
TAPER TURNING
D
d
l


A
B
C
Where, D = Large diameter of taper in mm.
d = small diameter of taper in mm.
l = length of taper part in mm
2 = full taper angle
= angle of taper angle or half taper angle.
The amount of taper in a workpiece is specified by ratio of the difference in diameters of the taper
to its length. This is termed as conicity and designated by letter K.
l
d D
K

=
o
o
o
tan 2
2
tan
2
tan
2
figure From
=
=

=
=

=
K
K
l
d D
l BC
d D
AB
Taper Geometry
Taper turning by a form tool
Taper turning by a form tool uses a tool which is a broad nose tool having straight
cutting edge.
The tool is set on the work piece at half taper angle, and is fed straight into the work
to generate a tapered angle.
This method is limited to turn limited length taper only.
This is due to the reason that the metal is removed by entire cutting edge, and any
increase in length of the taper will necessitate the use of a wider cutting edge.
This will require excessive cutting pressure, which may distort the work due to
vibration and spoil the work due to vibration and spoil the work surface.
Work piece
Tool
feed
Taper turning methods
Taper turning by setting over the tailstock
The principle of turning taper by this method is to shift the axis of rotation
of the workpiece, at an angle to the lathe axis, and feeding the tool
parallel to the lathe axis. The angle at which axis of rotation of the
workpiece is shifted is equal to half angle of taper. The amount of setover
is limited. This method is suitable for turning small taper on long jobs.
The main disadvantage of this method is that the live and dead centres
are not equally stressed and the wear is not uniform. Moreover, the lathe
dog being set at an angle, the angular velocity is not constant.
D
d
l

A
B
C

S
2
L l then workpiece, the of length entire the on turned is taper the if
2
conicity X work the of length entire
2
tan
tan sin
purposes, practical all for small, very is taper, of anle the , angle the If
sin
sin
: geometry From
d D
setover
setover
l
d D
L setover
L setover
L setover
AB BC
setover BC

=
=
=

=
=
=
=
=
=
o
o o
o
o
o
Taper turning methods
Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest
This method employs the principle of taper turning by rotating the workpiece on the
lathe axis and feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
The tool is mounted on the compound rest, is attached to a circular base, graduated
in degrees, which may be swiveled and clamped at any desired angle.
Once the compound rest is set at the desired half taper angle, rotation of the
compound slide will cause the tool to be fed at an angle and generate the
corresponding taper.
This method is limited to turn a short but steep taper owing to limited movement of
the cross slide.
The movement of the tool in this method is controlled by hand, thus this gives low
production rate and poor surface capacity.
Taper turning methods
Taper turning by taper turning attachment
The principle of taper turning by taper
turning attachment is to guide the tool in a
straight path set at an angle to the axis of
rotation of the workpiece, while the work
is being held by a chuck or between
centres aligned to the lathe axis.
A taper turning attachment consists of a
frame or bracket which is attached to the
rear end of the lathe bed and supports a
guide bar pivoted at the centre.
The bar having graduations in degrees
may be swiveled on either side of the
zero graduation and is set at any desired
angle with the lathe axis.
When taper turning attachment is used,
the cross slide is first made free from the
lead screw by removing the binder screw.
Taper turning methods
Taper turning by taper turning attachment
The rear end of the cross slide is
tightened with the guide block by
means of bolt. When longitudinal feed
is engaged, the tool mounted on the
cross slide will follow the angular
path, as the guide block will slide on
the guide bar set at an angle to the
lathe axis.
Taper turning by this method does not
disturb the alignment of the live and
dead centre.
By this process both steep and small
taper can be made over any length of
the workpiece.
Taper turning methods
Taper turning attachment
Taper turning methods
Cutting Screw Threads
Fig : (a) Cutting screw threads on a lathe with a single-point cutting tool. (b)
Cutting screw threads with a single-point tool in several passes, normally
utilized for large threads. The small arrows in the figures show the
direction of feed, and the broken lines show the position of the cutting
tool as time progresses. (c) A typical carbide insert and toolholder for
cutting screw threads. (d) Cutting internal screw threads with a carbide
insert.
Thread cutting operation
1. In thread cutting operation the first step is to remove
the excess material from the workpiece to make its
diameter equal to the major diameter of the thread
to be cut.
2. The shape or form of the thread depends on the
shape of the cutting tool to be used. The tool point
must be ground so that it has the same angle as the
thread to be cut. In a metric thread the included
angle of the cutting edge should be ground exactly
60
0
.Typical angles are 60 for Vee threads, and 29
for ACME threads. A thread gauge can be used to
measure thread angles. (also called Centre Gauge
or Fish Tail Gauge).
3. The top of the nose of the tool should be set at the
same height as the centre of the workpiece.
4. The correct gear ratio is required between the
machine spindle and the lead screw. This can be
determined in the following manner:
Thread cutting operation
Thread cutting calculations:
To calculate the gears required for cutting a thread of certain pitch can calculated
from the following formula:
The gear of the spindle shaft is the driver and the gear on the leadscrew is the driven
gear.
screw lead the of Pitch
cut be to screw the of Pitch
spindle the of Speed
leadscrew the of Speed
teeth Driven
teeth Driver
= =
Note: Often engine lathes are equipped with a set of gears ranging from 20 to
120 teeth in steps of 5 teeth, and one gear with 127 teeth.

To cut metric thread on English leadscrews: The cutting of metric thread on a
lathe with an English leadscrew may be carried out by introducing a translating gear
of 127 teeth.
If the leadscrew has n threads per inch to cut p mm pitch then,
127
pn 5
5
127
n
1
screw lead the of Pitch
(p) cut be to screw the of Pitch
teeth Driven
teeth Driver
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
The factor 127/5 from the fact that 25.4 mm is equal to 1 inch. So one translating gear, with 127
teeth is necessary.
Thread cutting operation
To change gears in a all geared lathe:
1. Loosen the nut below the middle gear and rotate the bracket so the middle gear
moves away from gear F.
2. Loosen the cap screw at the center of the middle gear and slide it away from gear
G.
3. Gear F can be removed by loosening the cap screw in its middle. Gear G has a
setscrew in its rim. Loosen this screw and pull the gear off of the shaft.
4. Replace these two gears with the gears which will produce the desired pitch and
secure with screws provided.



Thread cutting operation
5. Change gears of correct sizes are then fitted between the spindle and the
leadscrew.



When the Change gears are not fitted and when the Change gears are fitted (in this case a
compound drive is used)
Thread cutting operation
6. The speed of the spindle should be at a lower value and the half nut is engaged.
7. In thread cutting there are two methods of feeding the tool into the workpiece. In
the first method the tool is feed perpendicularly into the workpiece. In the second
method the tool is feed at half the angle of thread by swiveling the compound rest.
The second method has distinct advantages over the first as it permits to have a
top rake, cuts with single cutting edge, allows chips to flow easily, and reduces
the strain on the tool. So the later method is used for roughing cuts and the first
method is used for finishing cuts.




8. After the tool has produced a helical groove upto the end of the work, the tool is
withdrawn by the use of cross slide.
9. Thread catching: The complete depth of cut of the thread cannot be attained in a
single pass. Several cuts have to be taken till the required depth of cut is
obtained. For this, the tool has to be withdrawn from the thread groove after
completing each cut and then brought back to the starting position. Therefore we
should have a suitable method so that the tool follows the previously cut thread
groove, otherwise the threads will be spoiled. The process of engaging the thread
with the same groove is called thread catching or thread chasing. The following
methods can be used for thread catching:
Thread cutting operation
I. When the length of the threaded part is short, after each cut, the carriage is
brought back to its starting position by reversing the direction of rotation of lead
screw. Therefore in this case the half nut is not disengaged from the leadscrew
so the relative position is maintained.
II. When threading long jobs, the above mentioned method is not suitable, as it
requires lot of time. So after each cut the machine is stopped, the carriage is
disengaged from the leadscrew, by disengaging the half nut. It is then brought
back to the starting position by rotating the hand wheel in suitable direction. If
the leadscrew pitch is an exact multiple of the pitch to be cut than the half nut
can engaged anywhere and the tool will follow the previously cut groove. But if
not, a reference dial present on the right hand side of the apron called thread
chasing dial has to be used. A fixed zero mark is provided on the saddle
surface adjacent to the periphery of the dial. When the first cut is to be taken, the
half nut is engaged when zero mark and in subsequent cuts the half nut should
be engaged when the zero mark coincides with the same mark on the dial.
Thread cutting operation
Grinding Attachment
Milling Attachment
min
N f
l l
time Machining
then mm), 3 to 2 as taken (usually mm in tool the of l overetrave of length the be l
, mm in job the of length the be l and mm/rev. in feed the be f If
rpm. in the work of Speed N
final) and initial of (Average mm in the work of Diameter D Where
m/min
1000
DN
V Speed Cutting
o
o

+
=
=
=
=
t
This is the time required for one pass. A job is completed in several passes.
f
f
f
r
f
r
f
f r
f r
d
A
P and
d
A - A
P Then,
allowance. machining Finish A
allowance maching Total A
mm. in finishing and roughing for cut of depth d & d
ly. respective passes finishing and roughing of . No P & P , Let
= =
=
=
=
=
For facing operation the diameter used for calculating is the average of the blank diameter
and the lowest diameter (zero in case of complete facing).
l (mm)
D
i

D
f

A
f

A
Machining time calculation for turning operation
Turret Lathe
Figure 23.9 Schematic illustration of the components of a turret lathe.
Note the two turrets: square and hexagonal (main).
CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE
The standard engine lathe is versatile, but it is not a high production
machine. When production requirements are high, more automated
turning machines must be used. The turret lathe represents the first step
from the engine lathe toward high production turning machines. The
turret lathe is similar to the engine lathe except that tool-holding turrets
replace the tailstock and the tool post-compound assembly. The skill of
the worker is built into these machines, making it possible for
inexperienced operators to reproduce identical parts. In contrast, engine
lathe requires a skilled operator and requires more time to produce
parts that are dimensionally the same. The principal characteristic of
turret lathes is that the tools for consecutive operations are set up for use
in the proper sequence. Although skill is required to set and adjust the
tools properly, once they are correct, less skill is required to operate the
turret lathe.
The difference between the engine and turret lathes is that the
turret lathe is adapted to quantity production work, whereas the
engine lathe is used primarily for miscellaneous jobbing, toolroom,
or single-operation work. The features of a turret lathe that make it
a quantity production machine are:

Tools may be set up in the turret in the proper sequence for the
operation.
Each station is provided with a feed stop or feed trip so that each
cut of a tool is the same as its previous cut.
Multiple cuts can be taken from the same station at the same
time, such as two or more turning and/or boring cuts.
Combined cuts can be made; tools on the cross slide can be used
at the same time that tools on the turret are cutting.
Rigidity in holding work and tools is built into the machine to
permit multiple and combined cuts.
Turret lathes can also have attachments for taper turning, thread
chasing and duplicating, and can be made.
Advantages of Turret Lathes
:
Differences between a Ram type or Capstan and
Saddle type or a Turret lathe
The turret of a capstan lathe is
mounted on a short slide or ram which
slides on the saddle. The saddle is
clamped on bedways after adjusting
the length of the workpiece. Thus in a
capstan lathe, the travel of the turret is
dependent upon the length of the
travel of the ram. This limits the
maximum length of the work to be
machined in one setting.

The turret of a turret lathe is mounted
on a saddle which slides directly on
the bed. This feature enables the turret
to be moved on the entire length of the
bed and can machine longer work.
:
In the case of turret lathe, the turret is
mounted on the saddle which slides
directly on the lathe bedways. This
type of construction provides utmost
rigidity to the tool support as the
entire cutting load is taken up by the
lathe bed directly. In the case of a
capstan lathe as the ram feeds into the
work, the overhanging of the ram
from the stationary saddle presents a
non-rigid construction which is
subjected to bending, deflection or
vibration under heavy cutting load..
Differences between a Ram type or Capstan and
Saddle type or a Turret lathe
:
On a capstan lathe the hexagonal
turret can be moved back and forth
much more rapidly without having to
move the entire saddle unit. Thus
capstan lathes are particularly handy
for small articles which require light
and fast cuts. While operating the
machine by hand, there is less
fatigue to the operator, due to
lightness of the ram, whereas in the
case of turret lathe hand feeding is a
laborious process due to the
movement of the entire saddle unit.

Differences between a Ram type or Capstan and
Saddle type or a Turret lathe
:
Some turret lathes are equipped with crosswise movement of the
hexagonal turret. The crosswise movement may be effected by hand or
power. This feature enables turning of large diameters, facing, contour
turning and many other operation on the lathe.
Heavier turret lathes are equipped with power chucks like air operated
chucks for holding large workpieces quickly.
In the case of a capstan lathe, the cross slide is mounted on a carriage
which rests on the bedways between head stock and the ram. The
carriages rests on both the front and rear ways on the top of the bed.
Some turret lathe are equips with side hung type carriage. The carriage of
this type does not require support from the rear bedways but slides on the
top and bottom guideways provided at the front of the lathe. This
construction enables larger diameter of work to be swung above the lathe
bedways. There is no rear tool post on this type of machine as the
carriage does not extend upto rear bedways.

Differences between a Ram type or Capstan and
Saddle type or a Turret lathe
The turret 1 is mounted on the spindle 5, which rests on bearing on the
turret saddle.
The index plate 2, the bevel gear 3 and the indexing ratchet 4 are keyed
to the spindle 5.
Turret indexing mechanism
The plunger 14 fitted within the housing and mounted on the saddle locks the
index plate by spring pressure 15 and prevents any rotary movement of the turret
as the tool feeds into the work.
A pin 13 fitted on the plunger 14 projects out of the housing.
An actuating cam 10 and indexing pawl 7 are attached to the lathe bed 9 at the
desired position.
Turret indexing mechanism
Both the cam and the pawl are spring loaded.
As the turret reaches the backward position , the actuating cam 10 lifts the
plunger 14 out of the groove in the index plate due to the riding of the pin 13 on
the beveled surface of the cam 10 and thus unlocks the index plate 2.
The spring loaded pawl 7 which by this time engages with a groove on the
ratchet plate 4 causes the turret to rotate as the turret head moves backward.
Turret indexing mechanism
When the index plate or the turret rotates through one sixth of revolution, the pin
13 and plunger 14 drops out of cam 10 and the plunger locks the index plate at
the next groove.
The turret is thus index by one sixth of revolution and again locked into the new
position automatically.
The turret holding the next tool is now fed forward and the pawl is released from
the ratchet plate by the spring pressure.
Turret indexing mechanism
When the index plate or the turret rotates through one sixth of revolution, the pin
13 and plunger 14 drops out of cam 10 and the plunger locks the index plate at
the next groove.
The turret is thus index by one sixth of revolution and again locked into the new
position automatically.
The turret holding the next tool is now fed forward and the pawl is released from
the ratchet plate by the spring pressure.
Turret indexing mechanism
The ratio of the teeth between the pinion and gear are so chosen that when the
tool mounted on the face of the turret is indexed to bring it to the cutting
position, the particular stop rod for controlling the longitudinal travel of the tool
is aligned with stop 12.
Turret indexing mechanism
The setting of the stop rods 8 for limiting the feed of each operation may be
adjusted by unscrewing the lock nuts and rotating the stop rods on the plate.
Thus six stop rods may be adjusted for controlling the longitudinal travel of the
tools mounted on the six faces of the turret.

Turret indexing mechanism
Different types of tool holders used in turret lathes
Different types of tool holders used in turret lathes
Different types of tool holders used in turret lathes
Different types of tool holders used in turret lathes
Different types of tool holders used in turret lathes
In order to perform any work on turret lathes, proper planning for
systematic operations to be carried out in advance before setting the
work on lathe. The following procedures should be adopted to plan and
execute a work.
For effective planning and control, for each turret lathe upto-date capacity
chart is an essential requirement. This chart is supplied by the
manufacturers contains every working details of the machine such as the
maximum and minimum diameter of the work that can be mounted,
maximum length of stroke of the turret and saddle, maximum length of
the cross slide movement, tools available etc.
For tooling layout, a drawing of the finished part is required.
Proper selection of tools and tool holder is to be made.
Then the finished drawing is to be superimposed on the capacity chart
and the tools to be used are drawn out in proper sequence. The length of
travel of each tool is now calculated from the chart and position of stop
decided.
Proper spindle speed, feed and depth of cut is then decided.
The work and the tools are then set on the machine according to the
planned chart.
A typical example of such chart is given below.
Tool Layout
Tool Layout
The planning for Production of a hexagonal bolt is given below:
The capacity chart is made available.
The drawing of the finished hexagonal bolt is taken into consideration.
37 mm
10 mm
16 mm
Hexagonal Bolt
The tools and equipments such as bar stop, roller steady turning tool holder,
roller steady bar ending tool holder, self opening die head, chamfering tool,
parting tool are collected.
The drawing of the work and tools are superimposed on the capacity chart to
decide the length of travel of the tool and the position of stops.

Production of a hexagonal bolt
T4
T 1
T2 T3
T 5
T6
WORK
HEX TURRET
REAR
SQUARE TURRET
FRONT
SQUARE TURRET
T1 = Bar stop, T2 = Roller steady box turning tool, T3 = Bar ending tool,
T4 = Self-opening die head, T5 = Chamfering tool and T6 = Parting tool
Proper speeds and feeds for each operation are next calculated.
Production of a hexagonal bolt
Setting and machining operation are performed in the following order:
Setting of bar stops: The bar stop is placed on the first turret face. The bar stop is
set at a distance of 70 mm from the collet face. An extra length of 10 mm than the
bolt length is allowed, 4mm for parting off and 6 mm clearance of the collet face so
that the parting off tool may penetrate deep into work without interference.
Setting of the roller steady box turning tool: The roller steady box turning tool is
set on the next turret face for turning a diameter of 16 mm. The stop for turning tool
is set 20 mm from the collet face.
Production of a hexagonal bolt
Setting of bar ending tool: The bar ending tool is set on the next turret face and is
brought into operation after turning the bar. The stop is adjusted in position
accordingly.
Setting of self opening die head: The self opening die head is mounted on the
next face of the turret and dies are fitted into it to cut a thread of 16 mm diameter.
The stop is adjusted in position keeping in view the pulling out length of the die for
self releasing.
Production of a hexagonal bolt
Setting of chamfering tool: The chamfering tool is mounted on the four station
turret on the cross slide and the extreme longitudinal position of the saddle is
adjusted by a stop. The cross feed movement of the cross slide is also adjusted by
a stop.
Setting of parting off tool: The parting off tool is set on the rear tool post on the
cross slide and longitudinal position of the parting tool is adjusted by the stop set at
a distance of 6 mm from the turret face.
Production of a hexagonal bolt