Optical Instrumentation U1

OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTATION
ANUJ BHARDWAJ (UNIT-1) 1
LESSON PLAN

Facultys Name: ANUJ BHARDWAJ Subject Name: Optical Instrumentation
Year\Section: 4
th
year\ VIII SEM EI-A Subject Code:EIC-021
==================================================================
S.no Unit Date of
lecture
Topic to be covered in the lecture Executi
on date
Reference
Book
1 Unit-I PREAMBLE Slids
2 Light Sourcing, Transmitting and Receiving:
Concept of Light,
J. F. B.Hawkes
3 Classification of different phenomenon based on
theories of light
J. F. B.Hawkes
4 Basic light sources and its Characterization J. F. B.Hawkes
5 Polarization J. F. B.Hawkes
6 Coherent and Incoherent sources J. F. B.Hawkes
7 Grating theory& Application of diffraction grating J. F. B.Hawkes
8 Electro-optic effect, Slids\nots
9 Acousto-optic Effect Slids\nots
10 Magneto-optic Effect. Slids\nots
11 Unit-
II
Opto Electronic devices and Optical Components:
Photo diode, PIN diode
J. F. B.Hawkes
12 Photo-Conductors J. F. B.Hawkes
13 Solar cells and Phototransistors J. F. B.Hawkes
14 Materials used to fabricate LEDs J. F. B.Hawkes
15 Lasers Design of LED for
Optical communication
J. F. B.Hawkes
16 Response times of LEDs and LED drive circuitry J. F. B.Hawkes
17 Ruby lasers, Neodymium Lasers,He- Ne Lasers, Slids\nots
18 CO2 Lasers, Dye Lasers, Semiconductors Lasers, Slids\nots
19 Lasers Applications Slids\nots
20 Unit-
III
Interferometry
Interference effect
Slids\nots
21 Radio-metry Slids\nots
22 Types of interference phenomenon and its Application Slids\nots
23 Michelsons Interferometer and its application J. F. B.Hawkes
24 Fabry-perot interferometer J. F. B.Hawkes
25 Refractometer and Rayleighs interferometers J. F. B.Hawkes
26 Spectrographs and Monochromators J. F. B.Hawkes
27 Spectrophotometers and Calorimeters, J. F. B.Hawkes
28 Medical Optical Instruments Slids\nots
29 Unit-
IV
Holography:
Principle of Holography
Slids\nots
30 On-axis and Off axis Holography Slids\nots
31 Application of Holography and Optical data storage. Slids\nots
33 Active and passive optical fiber sensor Slids\nots
34 Intensity modulated, displacement type sensors Slids\nots
35 Multimode active optical fiber sensor Slids\nots
36 Single Mode fiber sensor-Phase Modulates and
polarization sensors
Slids\nots
37 Unit-
V
Fiber optic fundamentals and Measurements:
Fundamental of Fibers
J. F. B.Hawkes
38 Fiber Optic Communication system J. F. B.Hawkes
39 Optical Time domain Reflectometer (OTDR) J. F. B.Hawkes
40 Time domain dispersion measurement J. F. B.Hawkes
INTRODUCTION
Optical instrumentation has become even more firmly established as a
subject in its own right & an increasing number of courses in physics &
electronic engineering include aspects of optoelectronics.

An optical instrument either processes light waves to enhance an image for
viewing, or analyzes light waves (or photons) to determine one of a
number of characteristic properties

SYLLABUS
Unit:1 ) light sourcing, transmitting and receiving
Concept of light , Classification of different phenomenon based on theories of
light, Basic light sources and its characterization , Polarisation ,Coherent and
Incoherent sources , Grating theory, Application of diffraction grating, Electro-optic
effect, Acousto-optic effect, Magneto- optic effect
Unit:2 ) Opto- Electronic devices and Optical components
Photo diode, PIN, Photo- Conductors, solar cells, Photo transistors, Materials
used to fabricate LEDs and Lasers Design of LED for optical communication,
Response times of LEDs , LED drive circuitry, Lasers classification: Ruby lasers,
Neodymium Lasers, He-Ne lasers, Dye lasers, Semiconductors lasers, Lasers
applications

Unit-3) Interferometry
Interference effect, Radio-metery, Types of interference phenomenon and its
application,Michelsons Interferometer and its application , Fabry-Perot
interferometer , Refractometer,Rayleighs interferometers, Spectrographs and
Monochromators,Spectrophotometers,Calorimeters,Medical Optical Instruments
unit-4) Holography
Principle of Holography, On-axis and Off axis Holography , Application of
Holography , Optical data storage
optical fiber sensors
Active and passive optical fiber sensor, Intensity modulated displacement type
sensors, Multimode active optical fiber sensor (Microbend sensor ) Single Mode
fiber sensor-Phase Modulates and polarization sensors
Unit-5) Fiber optic fundamentals and Measurements
Fundamental of Fibers, Fiber optic Communication system, Optical Time Domain
Reflectometer (OTDR ) , Time domain dispersion measurement , Frequency
Domain dispersion measurement , Laser Doppler Velocimeter
Text book:
J.Wilson & JFB Hawkes, Opto Electronics
Wave optics and its Application , Rajpal S. Sirohi
A Yariv / Optical Electronics / C.B.S. Collage Publishing
Fundamentals of OPTOELECTRONICS by Pollock
Unit-1( Light sourcing, Transmitting and
Receiving )
Concept of light , Classification of different phenomenon based on
theories of light, Basic light sources and its characterization ,
Polarisation ,Coherent and Incoherent sources , Grating theory,
Application of diffraction grating, Electro-optic effect, Acousto-optic
effect, Magneto- optic effect

UNIT-1 ( Light sourcing, Transmitting and
Receiving )
Concept of light : Light is electromagnetic radiation of wavelength that is visible
to the human eye ( about 400-700 nm ).Light is composed of elementary
particles called photons.
Three properties of light :
a)Intensity b) frequency c) polarization
Light can exhibit properties of both waves and particles.

Nature of light
What am I?
Waves?
Particles?
The Nature of Light- described by different
theories
Quantum Theory Light consists of small
particles (photons)
Wave Theory Light travels as a transverse
electromagnetic wave
Ray Theory Light travels along a straight
line and obeys laws of geometrical optics.
Ray theory is valid when the objects are
much larger than the wavelength
(multimode fibers)
Classification of different phenomenon based on theories
of light
Image formation -
ray theory
Wavelength color,
polarization and
diffraction -
wave theory (electricity
and magneticsm)
Interaction of light with
atoms -
quantum theory of
photons
Constant speed of light
no matter how fast the
source or observer is
moving -
special theory of relativity

Different theories of light
given by different scientist
A long time ago
Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.), an ancient Greek thinker, thought that
we saw the world by sending something out of our eye and that
reflected from the object.

In Platos time (427 347 B.C.), the reflection of light from
smooth surfaces was known. He was also a Greek.

The ancient Greeks (about 200 A.D.) also first observed the
refraction of light which occurs at the boundary of two
transparent media of different refractive indices.
Isaac Newton
1643 - 1727
Christian Huygens
1629 - 1695
In the17
th
century, two scientists had different views
about the nature of light
Light is
particles
No! Light is
waves
In the 17
th
century, some properties of light were
well known already. For example:

Light has different colours.

Light can travel through a vacuum.

Light can be reflected and refracted, these processes are
described by the Laws of Reflection and Laws of
Refraction.

Laws of Reflection
According to the Laws of Reflection,
angle of incidence = angle of reflection (
i
=
r
)
Incident light ray Reflected light ray
Normal
r
Laws of Refraction
Willebrord Snell discovered in 1621 that when a wave travels
from a medium of refractive index, n
1
, to one of different
refractive index, n
2
,

n
1
sin(
1
) = n
2
sin(
2
)
This relationship is called Snells Law
Incident light ray
Normal
Refracted light ray
2
n
1
n
2
Interface
Light bends towards the normal when it
travels from an optically less dense medium
to an optically more dense medium.
Newton proposed his particle theory of light (or
corpuscular theory of light) to explain the characteristics of
light.
(source: Opticks, published by Isaac Newton in 1704)
I think light is a stream of tiny
particles, called Corpuscles

Why does light have different colours?
The particles of different colours have different
properties, such as mass, size and speed.
Why can light travel through a vacuum?
Light, being particles, can naturally pass through vacuum.
(At Newtons time, no known wave could travel through a
vacuum.)
Particle Theory
Why does light travel in straight lines?
A ball thrown into space follows a curved path because of
gravity.

Yet if the ball is thrown with greater and greater speed, its
path curves less and less.

Thus, billions of tiny light particles of extremely low mass
travelling at enormous speeds will have paths which are
essentially straight lines.
How does the particle theory explain the Laws of
Reflection?

The rebounding of a steel ball from
a smooth plate is similar to the
reflection of light from the
surface of a mirror.

Steel Ball Rebound
Light Reflection
Mirror
Many light
particles in a light ray
A cannon ball hits the surface of water, it is acted upon by a
refracting force which is perpendicular to the water surface. It
therefore slows down and bends away from the normal. Light does
the opposite. Newton explained this observation by assuming that
light travels faster in water, so it bends towards the normal.
(What was the problem in this explanation?)

The problem:
Does light really travel
faster in water?

In fact nobody could measure
the speed of light at the time of
Newton and Huygens
How does Newton's particle theory explain the Laws of Refraction?
Cannon ball Light
Water
Air
Why does a prism separates a beam of
white light into the colours of the rainbow?

Why does red light refract least and violet
light refract most?

Newtons assumptions:
1. The light particles of different colours have mass.
Red light particles have more mass than violet particles.
2. All light particles experience the same refracting force
when crossing an interface.

Thus, red light particles with more inertia will be refracted
less by the same force than violet light particles by the same force .
Lets see how Huygens used his wave theory to
explain the characteristics of light

I think light is emitted as a series of
waves in a medium he called aether
(source: Treatise on light, published by Huygens in 1690)
(aether commonly also called ether)

A wave starts at P and a wavefront W
moves outwards in all directions.
After a time, t, it has a radius r, so that
r = ct if c is the speed of the wave.

Each point on the wavefront starts
a secondary wavelet. These secondary
wavelets interfere to form a new wavefront
W at time t.
How do waves propagate?
P
How can wave theory explain the Laws of Reflection?
Click here for animation
W
1 W
2
C D
A B
When wavefront W
1
(AC) reaches point A, a secondary wave from A
starts to spread out. When the incoming wavefront reaches B, the
secondary wave from A has reached D, giving a new wavefront W
2
(BD).
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection can be proved by
geometry. Refer to the appendix of the worksheet or your textbook for
the proof.

How can wave theory explain the Laws of Refraction?
Optically
denser
medium
n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2

can be proved by geometry.
Refer to the appendix of the
worksheet or your textbook
for the proof.

Click here for animation
Wavefront W
1
reaches the boundary between media 1 & 2, point A of
wavefront W
1
starts to spread out. When the incoming wavefront
reaches B, the secondary wave from A has travelled a shorter
distance to reach D. It starts a new wavefront W2. As a result the
wave path bends towards the normal.

Air
A
C
B
D
W
1
W
2
2
If light behaves as waves, diffraction and interference should be seen. These
are two important features of waves. This was known in the 17th century.
(You can see this easily with water waves in a ripple tank)
The wave theory of light predicts interference and
diffraction. However, Huygens could not provide any
strong evidence to show that diffraction and interference
of light occurred.
Diffraction and interference
of water waves
Newton was the winner.. (at that time!)
Newtons particle theory of light dominated optics during
the 18
th
century.

Most scientists believed Newtons particle theory of light
because it had greater explanatory power.

Lets consider the reasons
Sounds can easily be heard around an obstacle but
light cannot be seen around an obstacle. Light, unlike
sound, does not demonstrates the property of
diffraction and it is unlikely to be a type of wave.
(1)Waves do not travel only in straight lines,
so light cannot be waves.
In the 17
th
century, it was believed that waves could not
travel through a vacuum. It was difficult for people at
that time to believe that waves could travel through the
ether, which was the imaginary medium that light
travels through, proposed by Huygens.

(2) Light, unlike sound waves, can travel through
a vacuum. Particles can travel through a
vacuum.
X
(3) Particle theory of light can explain why there are
different colours of light.
Huygens could not explain why light has different colours
at all. He did not know that different colours of light have
different wavelengths.

Though Newtons explanation was not correct (particles
of different colours of light have different mass and size),
his particles theory could explain this phenomenon
logically in the 17
th
century.
? ANUJ BHARDWAJ (UNIT-1) 32
(4) Reputation of Newton
People tend to accept authority when there is not
enough evidence to make judgement. Newtons
particle theory could only explain refraction by
incorrectly assuming that light travels faster in a denser
medium. No one could prove he was wrong at that
time.

The uncertainty about the speed of light in water remained
unresolved for over one hundred years after Newton's death.

However, the wave theory of light was
re-examined 100 years after Newtons particle theory of light had been
accepted
Thomas Young
1773 - 1829
Light is not
particles!
Thomas Young successfully
demonstrated the
interference of light (which
Huygens failed to show),
by his famous double-slit
experiments.

Since then the wave
theory of light has been
firmly established.

The wave theory of light was widely accepted until
1905
Albert Einstein
1879 - 1955
Wave theory of
light? No way!
The photoelectric effect is observed when light strikes a metal,
and emits electrons.
Einstein used the idea of photons (light consists of tiny particles)
to explain results which demonstrate the photoelectric effect.
Light
What evidence did Einstein find in his
photoelectric effect experiments that
helps to support the particle theory of
light?
In the setup investigating the photoelectric effect (as shown
below), the intensity of the light, its frequency, the voltage
and the size of the current generated are measured.
e
-
f
C
For certain metals, dim blue light can generate a current
while intense red light causes no current at all.

Below a certain cut off frequency
of light ( ), no voltage is
measurable.

Why does the wave theory of light
not explain the result?

Results from photoelectric effect experiments
Voltage
Frequency
of light
v
0
f
C
f

Einsteins explanation

Electrons are knocked free from the metal by incoming photons,
with each photon carrying an amount of energy E that is related to
the frequency (v) of the light by
E = h v
Where h is Plancks constant (6.62 x 10
-34
J seconds).

Only photons of high enough energy (above a threshold value) can
knock an electron free. e.g. blue light, but not red light, has
sufficient energy to free an electron from the metal.)
Albert Einstein provided a piece of convincing evidence for the particle
nature of light
Has the story ended yet?
Is light particles or waves?
Louis de Broglie
1892 - 1987
Light is not particles, not
waves, but BOTH!
Louis de Broglie in 1924 proposed that particles also have
wave-like properties, this was confirmed experimentally
three years later.

Most scientists did not understand de Broglies Ph.D.
dissertation at that time. One scientist passed it on to
Einstein for his interpretation. Einstein replied that de
Broglie did not just deserve a doctorate but a Nobel Prize!

De Broglie was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1929.
Aristotle ( Light was emitted from our eyes )

Christian Huygens ( Wave theory of light )

Isaac Newton ( Particle theory of light )

Thomas Young ( Wave theory of light )

Albert Einstein ( Particle theory of light )

de Broglie ( Wave-particle duality of all matter)

Summary
Summary: What can we learn from the historical development about the
understanding the nature of light?
Evidence (e.g. Youngs double slit experiment, photoelectric
experimental resultsetc) can establish or refute a theory.

Gathering scientific knowledge (the nature of light) is hard
work, building upon the hard work of other scientists in the
past or present. (collaboration across time)

Scientific knowledge is ever changing, sometimes even
revolutionary (Einstein discovered the particle nature of light,
de Broglie discovered the
wave-particle duality of all matter)
Some properties of light...
light travels more slowly in an optically dense
medium than it does in a less dense medium

A measure of this effect is the refractive index (index
of refraction)

Gives us refraction and reflection
material
in light of
Speed
in vacuum
light of Speed
=
n
n > 1

Reflected Rays
n
1

n
2

u
a
u
a
= acceptance angle
u
c
= critical angle
Incident Ray Reflected
Ray
u
c
Partial Reflection
Exit Ray
Total internal reflection is an extreme case of a ray bending away from the
normal as it goes from a higher to a lower index of refraction medium (from a
slower to a faster medium)

Glass or
water
(slow)
Normal
Air (fast medium)
Just below the critical angle for total
internal reflection there is a reflected
and a transmitted (refracted) ray
Glass or
water
(slow)
Normal
Just above the critical angle for total
internal reflection there is a reflected ray
but no transmitted (refracted) ray
Critical
angle
For the glass-air interface
Total internal reflection
Basic light sources and its characterisation:
There are many sources of light. The most common light sources are
black body radiation
Incandescent light bulbs
Flames
Certain other mechanisms can also produce light:
scintillation
Electroluminescence
Sonoluminescence
Cherenkov radiation
For characterisation of these sources , we have to discuss their properties,
that how they emit light, what is the spectrum region..etc etc.
Polarisation : This
phenomenon tells the
transverse nature of light.
We can understand this by
doing simple experiment.
Experiment:
light from a source S fall on a tourmaline crystal A cut parallel to its
crystallographic axis shown dotted in fig on next slide.
Second crystal B is placed in the path of beam.
Now if B is rotated, the intensity of the emergent light decreases and no light
comes out of the crystal B when B is right angle to A .
Thus it can be easily inferred that light is transverse motion.
experiment
Plane polarised light may be
defined as the light in which
the light vector vibrates
along a fixed straight line in
a plane perpendicular to
the direction of
propagation.
Pictorial representation of light vibrations
Brewsters law
According to this law,
when light is incident at the
polarizing angle the
reflected and refracted rays
are perpendicular to each
other.
Coherence
Purpose
Neglect temporal dependence
Coherence light -> stable interference
Degree of coherence interference fringes visibility
What light is coherent
Monochromatic temporal coherence
Coherence length
Spherical waves spatial coherence
Coherence area
Formal description
Binary relation
Cross correlation between two signals
Constructive vs. destructive interference;
Coherent vs. incoherent interference
Waves that combine
in phase add up to
relatively high irradiance.
Waves that combine 180
out of phase cancel out
and yield zero irradiance.
Waves that combine with
lots of different phases
nearly cancel out and
yield very low irradiance.
=
=
=
Constructive
interference
(coherent)
Destructive
interference
(coherent)
Incoherent
addition
Interfering many waves: in phase, out of phase, or with random
phase
Waves adding exactly
in phase (coherent
constructive addition)
Waves adding with
random phase,
partially canceling
(incoherent
addition)
If we plot the
complex
amplitudes:
Re
Im
Waves adding exactly
out of phase, adding to
zero (coherent
destructive addition)
Light bulbs
Light from a light bulb is
very complicated!
1. It has many colors (its white), so we have to add waves of many
different values of e (and hence k-magnitudes).
2. It isnt a point source, so, for each color, we have to add waves with
all possible k directions (its omnidirectional).
3. Even along one direction, many different molecules are emitting light with
random relative phases (the effect we just considered).
Light from a light bulb is incoherent
I
total
= I
1
+ I
2
+ + I
n

When many light waves add with
random phases, we say the light is
incoherent, and the light wave total
irradiance is just the sum of the
individual irradiances.
Other characteristics of incoherent light:
1. Its relatively weak.
2. Its omni-directional.
3. Its irradiance is proportional to the number of emitters.
Coherent vs. Incoherent Light
I
total
= I
1
+ I
2
+ + I
n

E
total
= E
1
+ E
2

+ + E
n

Coherent light:
1. Its strong.
2. Its uni-directional.
3. Total irradiance N
2
or 0.
4. Total irradiance is the mag-square
of the sum of individual fields.
Incoherent light:
1. Its relatively weak.
2. Its omni-directional.
3. Total irradiance N.
4. Total irradiance is the sum of
individual irradiances.
Laser
Diffraction
What exactly is diffraction
Everything not being reflection or refraction
Interference of many sources
Scalar Diffraction
Easier in certain environment
Huygens-Fresnel principle
More precise formulations
Kirchhoff
Rayleigh-Sommerfeld

t
t
tAt
tAt
t+At
t+At
Direction of
propagation
Direction of
propagation
( ) ( ) s d s o
i
y x u
s r
s r ik
S

o
cos
~
,
~
| ) ( |
|) ) ( | exp(
=
1
Diffraction is a phenomenon when a wave
that passes through an aperture or around an
obstacle forms a pattern on a screen.

What causes diffraction is interference of an
infinite number of waves that are emitted by
the points of the aperture

Huygens principle says that a large hole can be
approximated by many small holes where
each are a point source.

The point source generating spherical waves is
the source of diffraction.

There are two different limiting types of
diffraction observations
- Fresnel diffraction patterns
- Fraunhofer diffraction patterns


For Fraunhofer diffraction pattern there is a
large distance between aperture and the
screen.

For Fresnel diffraction the distance between
the aperture and the screen is generally
small.


Example of Fresnel diffraction


Airy disk: This is a Fraunhofer diffraction.
Grating theory: diffraction
grating is an arrangement
equivalent to a large number of
parallel slits of equal widths and
separated from each other by
equal opaque spaces.

A single beam of light will scatter off of the grating and emerge as many beams with indices m
= 0,1,2,3,,,,. The outgoing beam with m = 0 is called the "zeroth order" beam and it goes
straight through. The beam with m=1 is called the "first-order" beam and the beam with
m=2 is called the "second order" beam.

All of these higher orders beams have the same color (wavelength) as the incident beam.

Each order m refers to a pair of diffracted beams that emerge from the grating at
angles from the initial beam's direction.

The directions of the beams diffracted from the initial beam of wavelength is given by the
relation,

A diffraction grating is the tool of choice
for separating the colors in incident light.

The condition for maximum intensity is
the same as that for a double slit.
However, angular separation of the
maxima is generally much greater because
the slit spacing is so small for a diffraction
grating.
Diffraction
Gratings
Scattering ideas explain what
happens when light impinges on a
periodic array of grooves.
Constructive interference occurs
if the delay between adjacent
beamlets is an integral number,
m, of wavelengths.
| |
sin( ) sin( )
m i
a m u u =
where m is any integer.
A grating has solutions of zero, one, or many values of m, or orders.
Remember that m and u
m
can be negative, too.
Path difference: AB CD = m
Scatterer
Scatterer
a
u
i
u
m
a
AB = a sin(u
m
)
CD = a sin(u
i
)
A
D
C
B
Potential
diffracted
wave-front
Incident
wave-front
u
i
u
m
Diffraction
orders
Because the diffraction angle depends
on , different wavelengths are
separated in the nonzero orders.
No
wavelength
dependence
occurs in
zero order.
The longer the wavelength, the larger its deflection in each
nonzero order.
Diffraction angle, u
m
()

Zeroth order
First order
Minus
first order
Incidence
angle, u
i
Because diffraction gratings are used to separate colors, its helpful to
know the variation of the diffracted angle vs. wavelength.

Differentiating the grating equation,
with respect to wavelength:
Diffraction-grating dispersion
cos( )
m
m
d
a m
d
u
u
=
| |
sin( ) sin( )
m i
a m u u =
cos( )
m
m
d m
d a
u
u
=
Rearranging:
[u
i
is constant]
Thus, to separate different colors maximally, make a small, work in high
order (make m large), and use a diffraction angle near 90 degrees.
Gratings typically have an
order of magnitude more
dispersion than prisms.
Any surface or medium with
periodically varying o or n is a
diffraction grating.
Transmission gratings can be amplitude (o) or phase (n) gratings.
Gratings can work in reflection (r) or transmission (t).
Real diffraction
gratings
Diffracted white light
White light diffracted by a real grating.
m = 0
m =1
m = 2
m = -1
The dots on a CD are
equally spaced (although
some are missing, of
course), so it acts like a
diffraction grating.
Diffraction
gratings
The tracks of a compact
disc act as a diffraction
grating, producing a separation of
the colors of white light. The nominal
track separation on a CD is 1.6
micrometers, corresponding to about
625 tracks per millimeter. This is in
the range of ordinary laboratory
diffraction gratings. For red light of
wavelength 600 nm, this would give
a first order diffraction maximum at
about 22 .
Application of diffraction grating

GRATINGS FOR INSTRUMENTAL ANALYSIS
Atomic and molecular spectroscopy
Fluorescence spectroscopy
Colorimetry
Raman spectroscopy
GRATINGS IN LASER SYSTEMS
Laser tuning
Pulse stretching and compression
GRATINGS IN ASTRONOMICAL APPLICATIONS
Ground-based astronomy
Space-borne astronomy
GRATINGS IN SYNCHROTRON RADIATION BEAMLINES
SPECIAL USES FOR GRATINGS
Gratings as filters
Gratings in fiber-optic telecommunications
Gratings as beam splitters
Gratings as optical couplers
.Gratings in metrological applications

Colorimetry is the measurement
and specification of color, used in
analytical chemistry, color matching,
color reproduction and appearance
studies. Because color as perceived
cannot be associated with a single
wavelength it is a more complicated
function of how the three different
light receptors in the human eye
respond to the entire visible
spectrum when looking at an object
it is common to use a
multiwavelength instrument such as
a grating spectrometer.
GRATINGS IN LASER SYSTEMS
( laser tuning )
Tuning a dye laser the grating as output reflector. In this case,
the zero-order from the grating G is the output beam, and the
output coupler in Figure 13-3 is replaced by a mirror. The
wavelength is tuned by rotating the grating.
Tuning a dye laser the grating as a total reflector in the Littrow
configuration. Light from the dye laser cell is diffracted by the grating G,
which is oriented so that light of the desired wavelength is redirected back
toward the cell; the output beam is transmitted by an output coupler OC
(which reflects most of the light back into the laser). The wavelength is
tuned by rotating the grating.
The Littman-Metcalf arrangement The light diffracted by
grating G is retroreflected by mirror M, which diffracts the
light again back into the dye laser cell
Real life application of diffraction grating
The diffraction grating is an
immensely useful tool for the
separation of the spectral lines
associated with atomic
transitions. It acts as a "super
prism", separating the different
colors of light much more than
the dispersion effect in a prism.
The illustration shows the
hydrogen spectrum. The
hydrogen gas in a thin glass tube
is excited by an electrical
discharge and the spectrum can
be viewed through the grating.
Electro-optic effect:
when an electric field Is applied across an optical medium the distribution of
electrons within it is distorted so that the polarizability and hence the refractive
index of the medium changes anisotropically. The result of this electro-optic
effect may be to introduce new optic axes into naturally doubly refracting
crystalse.g. KDP,GaS
Definition: the phenomenon that the refractive index of a material
can be modified with an electric field (or electrooptic effect)
The electro-optic effect is the modification of the refractive index of a medium,
caused by an electric field. Only non-centrosymmetric crystal materials exhibit the
linear electro-optic effect, also called Pockels effect, where the refractive index
change is proportional to the electric field strength.

Basically all other transparent media exhibit only the Kerr effect, where the
refractive index change is proportional to the square of the electric field strength,
and is typically much weaker than for the linear effect. Materials exhibiting
the Pockels effect are called electro-optic materials.
Electro-optic Effect

Acousto-optic effect: the
acousto-optic effect is the change in
the refractive index of a medium
caused by the mechanical strains
accompanying the passage of an
acousic(strain) wave through the
medium.
Acousto-Optics:
- The refractive index of an optical medium is altered by
the presence of sound; sound modifies the effect of
medium on light;
- Many useful devices make use of this acousto optic
effect: optical modulator,switches, deflectors, filters,
isolators, frequency shifters, and spectrum analyzers.
- Sound is a dynamic strain involving molecular
vibrations that take the form of waves which travel at a
velocity characteristic of the medium; vibration of
molecular => polarizability => refractive index
x
u
z
A
u
A = 2 / s in
Bragg diffraction: an
acoustic plane
wave acts as a partial
reflector of light
(beamsplitter).
+Interaction of light and sound:
- Bragg Diffraction:
Consider an acoustic plane wave traveling in the x
direction in a medium with velocity v
s
, frequency f,
and wavelength A = v
s
/f. The strain (relative
displacement) at position x and time t is
) c o s ( ) , (
0
q x t s t x s O =
s
0
: amplitude; O = 2tf ; q = 2t /A (wavenumber).
The acoustic intensity (W/m
2
) is
2 /
2
0
3
s v I
s s
p =
p : mass density of medium.
The medium is assumed to be optical transparent and
the refractive index in the absence of sound is n. The
strain s => perturbation of the refractive index
(analogous to the Pockels effect)
) , ( ) , (
3
2
1
t x s n t x n p = A
p : photoelastic constant
(strain-optic coefficient)
Magneto-optic devices:
the presence of magnetic fields may
also affect the optical properties of
some substances thereby giving rise
to a number of useful devices.This is
based on the faraday effect.
Assignment
Discuss basic light sources and its characterisation.
What is Bire frengence? How it is useful to generate electro-
optic effect.
What is Acousto optic effect? Explain Raman Nath effect.
How magneto optic effect is used to design current
sensors.Explain with relevant diagram.
What is Diffraction grating? Write down its application.

Optical Instrumentation U1

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