Welding Processes, Metallurgy and Defects

Summer 2010
Mikal Balmforth, P.E., CWEng, CWI
MIT Research Associate MIT Welding Laboratory

Overview
Major welding processes Some welding metallurgy topics Common weld defects Other welding related issues

Arc Welding Processes

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
Also stick or MMA welding Simple, common process Consumable, flux coated electrode

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

Also TIG welding Non-consumable tungsten Inert gas shielding Clean, precision work Filler added externally

electrode

Arc Welding Processes

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
Also MIG or MAG welding Consumable wire electrode Gas shielding Often automated

Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)

Similar to GMAW Hollow electrode wire filled with flux Often no shielding gas

Arc Welding Processes

Others
Submerged arc welding (SAW) Plasma arc welding (PAW) Underwater welding

Resistance Welding Processes

Spot welding
Sheet metal Two copper electrodes Heat from resistance at interface Autos have thousands of spot welds

Seam welding
Wheel shaped electrodes

Projection welding
Dimples or projections in sheet or components concentrates heat

Upset welding
Components forged at elevated temperature

Solid State Welding Processes

Friction welding (FRW) Inertia welding (IFW) Friction stir welding (FSW)

Solid State Welding Processes

Diffusion welding (DFW)
Often used in aircraft and aerospace

Ultrasonic welding (USW)

Used for plastics and electronic components

Explosion welding (EXW)

Often dissimilar metals or cladding

High Energy Density Welding Processes

Narrow, deep welds are produced
Lower heat input and narrower HAZ

High speeds are possible Laser beam welding (LBW)

Solid state or gas lasers Usually done in air

High Energy Density Welding Processes

Electron beam welding (EBW)
Concentrated stream of high-velocity electrons Usually done in vacuum Can be high power

Allied Processes
Brazing and soldering (450C, 840F) Oxyfuel gas welding Thermal cutting
Oxygen, plasma arc, other Gouging

Regions of a Fusion Weld

Fusion zone (FZ) weld metal Fusion boundary (FB) Heat affected zone (HAZ) Unaffected base metal (BM)
FB

FZ

HAZ

BM

Fusion Zone
Autogenous, homogeneous or heterogeneous Molten to solid

Heat Affected Zone

Grain growth, recovery and recrystallization, precipitates, stresses

Welding Metallurgy Issues

How does the heat from welding affect the material and its properties? Control microstructures and prevent defects What filler metals, processing conditions, and welding techniques to use
Chemistry Heat input Welds often require pre- and/or post-heating

Classification of Weld Defects

Fabrication Delayed (hydrogen-induced) Service

Fabrication Defects
Porosity

Incomplete fusion

Incomplete penetration

Undercut

Fabrication Defects Cont.

Solidification cracking
Also called hot or centerline cracking

HAZ hot cracking Inclusions slag or tungsten

Fabrication Defects Cont.

Reheat cracking Liquid metal embrittlement (LME)

Fabrication Defects Cont.

Lamellar tearing

Incorrect weld shape or size

Spatter

Delayed (H-induced) Defects

Usually initiates in course grained HAZ, but can occur in weld metal Four requirements:
Susceptible microstructure Source of hydrogen Low temperature Tensile stress

Service Defects
Fatigue failures
Cyclic loading conditions Cracks propagate from weld defects

Mechanical overload
Ductile rupture can initiate at defects

Service Defects
Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion (IGC)
Localized grain boundary attack Sensitization in austenitic stainless steels

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)

Tensile stress combined with corrosive media Transgranular or intergranular crack propagation

Significance of Weld Defects

Failure initiation sites Reduced tensile and other mechanical properties Reduced fatigue life Toughness / Fracture mechanics
Allowable defect size

Other Welding Related Issues

Codes and Standards / Certification
WPS, PQR, WPQR AWS, ASME, API, etc.

Testing / Inspection
Metallography, SEM, mechanical testing NDE
Visual, dye penetrant, ultrasonics, x-ray, magnetic particle, eddy current

Safety
Worker, workplace, fumes, fire prevention

Weld repair Stresses and distortion