Key Concept Summary

Law of mass conservation Law of definite proportion Law of multiple proportion

explained by Atomic structure comprising lose/ gain electrons Nucleus containing Electrons Ions arranged in the are Protons Neutrons Cations Anions Periodic table divided into have Atom with same number of protons are Element represented by Atomic number Isotopes represented average mass is by Element symbol, having Atomic mass with different numbers of neutrons are

Symbols

Periods

Groups which are

Classes

Atomic number, Z

Mass number, A

which are Inner transition metals

Main Groups

Transition Metal

Metals, Semimetals, or Nonmetals

Chapter 2 Atoms and the Atomic Theory

All the matters can be broken down into elements. Is matter continuously divisible into ever smaller and smaller pieces, or is there an ultimate limit? What is an element made of? Although most of thinkers including Plato and Aristotle, believed that matter is continuous, the Greek philosopher Democritus disagreed. Democritus proposed the elements are composed of tiny particles that we now call atoms, from the Greek word atomos, meaning indivisible. I. Early Chemical Discoveries and Atomic Theory Three important fundamental laws in chemistry 1) Law of conservation of mass 2) Law of constant composition 3) Law of multiple proportions

Law of conservation of mass

1774 Antoine Lavoisier showed heating the red power HgO causes it to decompose into the silvery liquid mercury and the colorless gas oxygen. 2HgO 2Hg +O2 then show that oxygen is the key substance involved in combustion. Furthermore, he demonstrated by careful measurements that when combustion is carried out in a closed container, the mass of the combustion products is exactly equal to the mass of the starting reactants. (tin + air+ sealed glassed vessel) (tin oxide + remaining air + glass vessel)

Law of conservation of mass ~ The total mass of substances present after a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass of substances before the reaction. Matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

E.g. A 0.382g sample of magnesium reacts with 2.652g of nitrogen gas. The sole product is magnesium nitride. After reaction, the mass of unreacted nitrogen is 2.505g. What mass of magnesium nitride is produced? mass before reaction = 0.382g magnesium + 2.652g nitrogen gas = 3.034g mass after reaction = ?g magnesium nitride + 2.505 nitrogen gas 3.034g =?g magnesium nitride + 2.505 nitrogen gas ?g magnesium nitride = 3.034g 2.505g = 0.529g quiz 1.doc

Law of constant composition

1799 Joseph Proust reported one hundred pounds of copper, dissolved in sulfuric or nitric acids and precipitated by the carbonates of soda or potash, invariably gives 180 pounds of green carbonate. Law of constant composition ~ All samples of a compound have the same composition- the same proportion by mass of the constituent elements. This means that the relative amount of each element in a particular compound is always the same, regardless of the source of the compound or how the compound is prepared. E. g. Water is made up of two elements H and O. The two sample of water below have the same proportions of the two elements, expressed as percentages by mass. Every sample of water contains 1 part hydrogen and 8 parts oxygen by mass. _________________________________________ sample A Composition sample B 10.000g 27.000g 1.119g H %H = 11.19 3.031g H 8.881g O %O = 88.81 23.979g O

Doltons Atomic Theory How can the Law of conservation of mass and Law of constant composition be explain? Why do element behave as they do? To answer these questions: 1803-1808 John Dalton : proposed a new theory of matter. 1 Each chemical element is composed of minute, indestructible particles called atoms. Atoms can be neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change. (If atoms of an element are indestructible, then the same remains unchanged. This explains the law of conservation of mass). 2 All atoms of an element are alike in mass and other properties, but the atoms of one element are different from those of all other elements. 3 In each of their compounds, different elements combine in a simple numerical ratio: e.g. one atom of A to one of B (AB) or one atom of A to two of B (AB2). If all atoms of an element are alike in mass (assumption 2) and if atoms unite in fixed numerical ratio (assumption 3), the percent composition of a compound must have a unique value, regardless of the origin of the sample analyzed. This explains the law of constant composition.

Law of multiple proportions

Daltons theory leads to a prediction- the law of multiple proportions. ~ If two elements form more than a single compound, the masses of one element combined with a fixed mass of the second are in the ratio of small whole numbers. Same elements to combine in different ratios to give different substances. E.g. Oxygen and carbon can combine either in a 1: 1.333 mass ratio to make a substance or in a 1: 2.667 mass ratio to make a substance. first 1 g carbon per 1.333 g oxygen second 1 g carbon per 2.667 g oxygen C:O mass ratio = 1: 1.333 C:O mass ratio = 1: 2.667

comparison C:O mass ratio in first sample = (1 g C)/(1.333g O) = 2 of C:O ratios C:O mass ratio in second sample (1 g C)/(2.667g O) Compare two substances clearly the second substance contains exactly twice as much oxygen as the first for a given number of carbon. If the first oxide has the molecular formula CO then the second oxide will be CO2.

There are two compound both contain nitrogen and hydrogen. Compound A contains 1.50g of N and 0.216g H. Compound B contains 2.00g of N and 0.144g H. If the formula of compound B is N2H2, what is the formula of compound A? N:H ratio in A = 1.50: 0.216g = 1.00: 0.144 N:H ratio in B = 2:00: 0.144 = 1.00: 0.0720 H in A is (0.144/0.0720 = 2 ) twice as much in B IF B is N2H2 then A is N2H4

Atomic Mass Unit

Daltons theory enables us to set up a scale of relative atomic masses. He cannot measure the exact mass of atoms but relative mass. E.g. Consider calcium sulfide, which consists of 55.6% calcium by mass and 44.4% sulfur by mass. Suppose there is one calcium atom for each sulfur atom in calcium sulfide. Because we know that the mass of a calcium atom relative to that of a sulfur atom must be the same as the mass % in calcium, we know that the ratio of the mass of a calcium atom to that of a sulfur atom is mass of Ca atom = 55.6 = 1.25 mass of a S atom 44.4 or mass of a Ca atom = 1.25 x mass of a sulfur atom By continuing in this manner with other compounds, it is possible to build up a table of relative atomic masses. We define a quantity called atomic mass ratio (usually referred to as atomic mass), which is the ratio of the mass of a given atom to the mass of some particular reference atom. The unit of atomic mass is assigned atomic mass unit (amu).

The Structure of Atoms What is an atom made of ?

Discovery of subatomic particle i) The Discovery of Electrons *1897 J.J. Thomson- cathode ray experiment Thomsons experiment involved the use of cathode-ray tube. When a sufficiently high voltage is applied across the electrode, an electric current flows through the tube from negatively charged electrode ( the cathode) to the positively charged electrode (the anode).

Later experiments had shown that cathode-ray can be deflected by electric or magnetic field. Because the beam is produced at a negative electrode and is deflected toward a positive plate, Thomson proposed that cathode rays are negatively charged fundamental particles found in all atoms which, we now called electrons. Furthermore, because electrons are emitted from electrodes made of many different metals, all these substances must contain electrons. By careful measuring the amount of deflection caused by electric and magnetic fields of known strength, He established the ratio of mass to electric charge for cathode ray that is, m/e = -5.6857x10-9 g/coulomb.

Millikans Oil-Drop Experiment: Mass of Electron

1909 Robert Millikan determined the electronic charge through a series of oil-drop experiments. The currently accepted value of the charge of the e is 1.6022x10-19C. Substituting into Thomsons mass to charge ratio then gives the mass of electron as 1/1836(= 9.1094x10-28g).

X-Ray and Radioactivity

Ernest Rutherford identified two type of radiation from radioactive materials, alpha () and beta (). -particles ( He2+)carry two fundamental units of positive charge and have essentially the same mass as He atoms. particles are negatively charged particles produced by changes occurring within the nuclei of radioactive atoms and have the same properties as electrons. A third form of radiation, that is not affected by an electric field was discovered in 1900 by Paul Villard. This radiation, called -ray, is not made up of particles; it is electromagnetic radiation of extremely high penetrating power. Properties of the three radioactive emissions discovered Original name Modern name Mass (amu) -ray -particle 4.00 -ray -particle (electron) 5.49x10-4 -ray -ray 0 Charge +2 -1 0_______

Rutherfords Scattering Experiment

1909 Ernest Rutherford ~ use particle to study the inner structure of atoms. When he directed a beam of -particles at a thin gold foil, he found that The majority of -particles penetrated the foil undeflected. Some particles experienced slightly deflections. A few (about one in every 20,000) suffered rather serious deflections as they penetrated the foil. A similar number did not pass through the foil at all, but bounced back in the direction from which they had come.

The Nuclear Atom: Protons and Neutrons

1911 Rutherford explained his results by proposing a model of the atom known as the nuclear atom and having these features. 1 Most of the mass and all of the positive charge of an atom are centered in a very small region called the nucleus. The atom is mostly empty space. 2 The magnitude of the positive charge is different for different atoms and is approximately one-half the atomic weight of the element. 3 There are as many electrons outside the nucleus as there are units of positive charge on the nucleus. The atom as a whole is electrically neutral. Rutherfords nuclear atom suggested the existence of positively charged fundamental particles of matter in the nuclei of atoms- called protons. He predicted the existence in the nucleus of electrically neutral particles. * 1932 Jame Chadwick ~ verified that there is another type of particles in atom called neutron.

The Structure of Atoms

Therefore Modern picture of an atom, then, consist of three types of particles-electrons, protons and neutron.
Electric Charge Particle SI (C ) Atomic Electron -1.602x10-19 -1 Proton +1.602x10-19 +1 Neutron 0 0 Mass SI (g) 9.109x10-28 1.673x10-24 1.675x10-24 amu 5.49x10-4 1.0073 1.0087 Located outside nucleus in nucleus in nucleus

Conclusion:

Modern physics has revealed successively deeper layers of structure in ordinary matter. Matter is composed, on a tiny scale, of particles called atoms. Atoms are in turn made up of minuscule nuclei surrounded by a cloud of particles called electrons. Nuclei are composed of particles called protons and neutrons, which are themselves made up of even smaller particles called quarks. Quarks are believed to be fundamental, meaning that they cannot be broken up into smaller particles.

Chemical Elements
i) Atomic number What is that makes one atom different from another? Elements differ from one another according to the number of protons in their atoms, a value called the elements atomic number. All atoms of particular element have the same atomic number, Z, on the other hand all atoms with the same number of protons are the same element. atomic number (Z) = Number of proton in atoms nucleus mass number (A) = # of protons (Z) + # of neutrons (N)

Isotopes Contrary to what Dalton thought, we know that atoms of an element do not necessarily all have the same mass. In 1912, J. J. Thomson measured the mass-to charge ratios of positive ions formed in neon gas. He found that about 91% of the atoms had one mass and that the remaining atoms were about 10% heavier. All neon atoms have 10 protons in their nuclei, and most have 10 neutrons as well. A few neon atoms, however have 11 neutrons and some have 12. The naturally occurring percentages of isotopes of a particular element are referred to as the percent natural abundance of that element. Atoms that have the same atomic # (Z) but different mass numbers (A) are called isotopes. Most elements occur naturally as a mixture of different isotopes. E.g. Hydrogen has three isotopes http://www.prenhall.com/petrucci

An isotope is specified by its atomic # and its mass #. The notation used to designate isotopes is the chemical symbol of the element written with its atomic # as a left subscript and its mass # as a left superscript.

number p + number n number p A E Z Symbol of element

E.g. Mass # Atomic # 12

C 6

Symbol of element

Ions ~ is an electrically charged particle obtained from an atom or chemically bonded group of atoms lose or gain electrons. The charge on an ion is equal to the # of protons minus the # of electrons. An atom that gains extra electrons becomes a negatively charged ion, called an anion. An atom that loses electrons becomes positively charged ion, called a cation.

number p + number n number p A +? E Z number p - number e

E.g. Determine numbers of electrons in Mg2+ cation and the S2- anion? Mg2+ 12-number e = +2 S216-number e = -2 number e =10 number e =18

Isotopic Masses we arbitrarily choose one atom and assign it a certain mass. By international agreement, this standard is an atom of the isotope carbon-12, which is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass unit. Next, we determine the mass of other atoms relative to carbon-12 by mass spectrometer. All atomic masses are given relative to the mass of carbon12 isotope. Mass of one 12C atom = 12 amu (exactly) 1 amu = Mass of one 12C atom = 1.660539 x 10-24 g 12 E.g From the mass spectral data, the ratio of the mass of 16O to 12C is found to be 1.33291. What is the mass of an 16O atom? 16 O/12C = 1.33291 mass of 16O = 1.33291 x 12amu = 15.9949amu E.g. If the standard is H =1.00amu then what would be the atomic mass of carbon be?

Atomic Mass
v) Atomic Mass

is the average of the isotopic masses, weighted according to the naturally occurring abundances of the isotopes of the element.
atomic mass natural of an = abundance element of isotope(1) mass of isotope (1) natural + abundance of isotope(2) mass of x isotope (2) + .....

E.g. Chlorine consists of the following isotopes: Isotope isotope mass(amu) fractional abundance Chlorine-35 34.96885 0.75771 Chlorine-37 36.96590 0.24229 What is the atomic mass (weight) of chlorine?

 The average atomic mass of an imaginary element, Z, is 12.50 amu. Z has only two stable isotopes: 10Z (10.20 amu) and 13Z (13.00 amu). What is the natural percent abundance of 13Z?

Introduction to Periodic Table With discovery of many elements 1869 Mendeleev and Meyer ~ independently proposed periodic table organized the elements In modern periodic table, The periodic table of the elements is organized into 18 groups and 7 periods. Elements are represented by one or two-letter symbols and are arranged according to atomic number. * a horizontal row of elements- a period * a vertical row of elements- a group or family

Periodic Table of Elements

Group Period 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1A
1

8A
2

H
1.008
3

2A

3A

4A

5A

6A

7A
9

He
4.003
10

Li
6.941
11

Be
9.012
12

F Ne 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18 B C N O

3B 4B 5B
23

Na
22.99
19

Mg
24.30
20

6B

7B

--- --8B -- ---

1B

2B

Al
26.98
31

13

Si
28.09
32

14

15

16

Cl
35.45
35

17

Ar
39.95
36

18

30.97

32.07

Ca
40.08
38

Sc
44.96
39

21

Ti
47.88
40

22

Cr
52.00
42

24

Mn
54.94
43

25

Fe
55.85
44

26

Co
58.93
45

27

Ni
58.69
46

28

Cu
63.55
47

29

Zn
65.39
48

30

Ga
69.72
49

Ge
72.61
50

As
74.92
51

33

Se
78.96
52

34

Br
53

Kr
54

39.10

50.94

79.90 83.80

Rb
85.47
55

37

Sr
87.62
56

Zr
91.22
72

Nb
92.91
73

41

Mo
95.94
74

Tc
(98)
75

Ru
101.1
76

Rh
102.9
77

Pd
106.4
78

Ag
107.9
79

Cd
112.4
80

In
114.8
81

Sn
118.7
82

Sb
121.8
83

Te
127.6
84

Xe
131.3
86

88.91
71

126.9
85

Cs
132.9
87

Ba
137.3
88

* **

Lu
103

Hf
104

Ta
180.9
105

W
183.8
106

Re
186.2
107

Os
190.2
108

Ir
192.2
109

Pt
195.1
110

Au
197.0
111

Hg
200.6
112

Tl
204.4
113

Pb
207.2
114

Bi
209.0
115

Po
(209)
116

At
(210)
117

Rn
(222)
118

138.91 178.5

Fr
(223)

Ra
226.0

Lr

Rf

Db
(262)

Sg
(266)

Bh
(264)

Hs
(269)

Mt
(268)

Ds

Rg

Uub

Uut

Uuq

Uup

Uuh

Uus

Uuo

227.0

(216)

*Lanthanoids **Actinoids

* **

La Ac
89

57

Ce Th
90

58

Pr Pa
91

59

Nd
92

60

Pm Np
93

61

Sm Pu
94

62

Eu Am
95

63

Gd Cm
96

64

Tb Bk
97

65

Dy Cf
98

66

Ho Es
99

67

Er Fm
100

68

Tm Md
101

69

Yb No
102

70

It is customary also to divide the elements into two broad categories known as Metals: Except mercury (liquid), metals are solid s at room temperature. They are generally malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity, and have a lustrous or shiny appearance. Nonmetals: generally have opposite properties of metals; e.g. poor conductors of heat and electricity. Metalloid (semimetal): is an element having both metallic and nonmetallic properties. Or into three groups Main group elements are those in groups 1, 2 and 13-18. when form ions, group 1, 2 lose the same # e as their group #; group 13 lose group #-10; group 14-18 gain 18-group #. Transition elements: from group 3 to 12, and because all of them are metals, they are also called the transition metals. The # of electrons lost in TM is not related to their group #. Inner transition metals which include Lanthanides and Actinindes.

Mole : S.I. Unit for amount of substance

We buy a quantity of groceries in several ways. by number such as eggs, apples and oranges by mass such as rice and peanuts The quantity of an element or a compound, which like grocery items, can be measured by number or by mass. Molecules and atoms are extremely small objects - both in size and mass. Consequently, working with them in the laboratory requires a large collection of them. How large does this collection need to be? Chemists have adopted the mole concept as a convenient way to deal with the enormous numbers of atoms, molecules or ions in the sample they work with.

Quick-Think
1) Complete a sentence starter: One mole of substance contains _______ number of elementary entities such as people, atoms, molecules, etc. 2) Select the best response: For one gram of each element, which one has least number of atoms (a) Li (b) Al (c) Ti (d) W 3) Correct the error: Avogadros number is larger than one mole

The Concept of the Mole and the Avogadro Constant definition: A mole is an amount of substance that contains the same number of elementary entities (atoms, molecules or formula units) as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12. (the quantity of a substance whose mass in gram is numerically equal to the formula mass of the substance). The value of Avogadros number (the # of elementary entities) is based on a definition and a measurement. A mole of carbon-12 is defined to be 12 gram. The mass of one carbon-12 atom is measured using mass spectrometer and found to be 1.9927x10-23g. The ratio of this two mass is Avogadros number, NA.

NA =

12g/mol
23 1.99927x10g

1 = 6.02214 x1023 mol

Therefore, one mole of C = 6.02214 x 10 23 atoms = 12.011g one mole of O = 6.02214 x 10 23 atoms= 15.9994g The mass of one mole of atoms, called molar mass (g/mole).

E.g. How many atoms of gold are present in 5.07x10-3mol Au?

E.g. How many lead-206 atoms are present in 1.71g of lead? The nature abundance of lead-206 is 24.1%. First convert the mass to mol