Contents

Ref: - Supplementary Notes for TA C222

Soil Classification
Grain Size Distribution
Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit
Field Identification of Soils

Rock Cycle Soil Formation
Soils
The final products
due to weathering are
soils
Introduction
Object:
To keep various types of soils into groups
according to their properties
Soil consisting of similar characteristics Can be
placed in the SAME Group

Need:
To find the suitability of the soil for construction of
dams, highways and foundations
Types of Soil Classification
1. Partcle Size Classification
2. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
3. Textural Classification
4. Public Roads Administration Classification
(AASHTO, 1978)


Particle Size Classification
Soils are according to Grain Size
Various grain size classifications are in use
Grain size distribution of soil is required
Percentage of soil in each size group is
determined


Example: Soil 10% Gravel + 52% Sand + 38% Silt & Clay
Origin of USCS:
This system was first developed by Professor Casagrande
(1948) for the purpose of airfield construction during World
War II. Afterwards, it was modified by Professor Casagrande
to enable the system to be applicable to dams, foundations, and
other construction
Four major divisions:
(1) Coarse-grained
(2) Fine-grained
(3) Organic soils
(4) Peat
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Boulders
Silt Clay
2.0 mm 0.425 mm
Cobbles
Gravel Sand
Coarse Fine Coarse Fine Medium
300 mm 80 mm
20 mm
4.75 mm
0.075
mm
0.002
mm
Coarse Grained Soils
Fine
Grained
Soils
Unified Soil Classification System
Coarse-grained soils:
Gravel Sand
Fine-grained soils:
Silt Clay

0.075 mm
Grain size distribution
C
u
C
c
PL, LL
Plasticity chart
50 %
4.75 mm
Sieve analysis Atterberg limits
Unified Soil Classification System
Particle size

Question
For the purpose of engineering descriptions, soils are divided into classes of similar grain
size. The NOUNS used to describe a size class refer to a specific range of sizes.

What is the range of sizes of SAND?



0.075 mm to 0.425 mm
0.425 mm to 4.75 mm
0.075 mm to 4.75 mm
2.0 mm to 4.75 mm
What is the range of sizes of FINE SAND particles?

0.075 mm to 0.425 mm
0.425 mm to 4.75 mm
0.075 mm to 4.75 mm
2.0 mm to 4.75 mm
0.075 4.75 mm
0.075 0.425 mm
USCS
Particle size

Question
For the purpose of engineering descriptions, soils are divided into classes of similar grain
size. The NOUNS used to describe a size class refer to a specific range of sizes.

What is the range of sizes of MEDIUM SAND?



0.075 mm to 0.425 mm
0.425 mm to 2.0 mm
0.075 mm to 4.75 mm
2.0 mm to 4.75 mm
What is the range of sizes of SILT particles?

0.002 mm to 0.425 mm
0.002 mm to 4.75 mm
0.002 mm to 0.075 mm
<0.002 mm
0.425 2.0 mm
0.002 0.075 mm
USCS
Particle size

Question
For the purpose of engineering descriptions, soils are divided into classes of similar grain
size. The NOUNS used to describe a size class refer to a specific range of sizes.

What is the range of sizes of Gravel?



2 mm to 4.75 mm
4.75 mm to 20 mm
4.75 mm to 80 mm
20 mm to 80 mm
What is the range of sizes of CLAY particles?

0.002 mm to 0.425 mm
0.002 mm to 4.75 mm
0.002 mm to 0.075 mm
<0.002 mm
4.75 80 mm
< 0.002 mm
USCS
Grain Size Distribution
Coarse-grained soils:
Gravel Sand
Fine-grained soils:
Silt Clay
0.075 mm (USCS)
Experiment
Sieve analysis
Hydrometer analysis
Classification of Coarse Grained Soils
Procedure for grain size determination
Sieving - used for particles > 75 m

Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles
Analysis based on Stokes Law, velocity proportional to diameter
Schematic diagram of hydrometer test
At the beginning Towards the end of test


















0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
Particle size (mm)
%

F
i
n
e
r
C
D
D
u
=
60
10
C
D
D D
c
=

30
2
60 10
( )
x% of the soil has particles
smaller than D
x
D
60

Grain Size Distribution Curves
where C
U
is Coefficient of Uniformity and C
c
is Coefficient of Curvature
Grain Size Distribution Curves
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
Particle size (mm)
%

F
i
n
e
r
A Well graded Soil
B Uniform Soil (or Poorly Graded Soil)
C Gap Graded Soil (or Poorly graded soil)
D Well graded with some fines
E Well graded with an excess of fines
A
C
B
D
E

To determine Well Graded (W) or Poorly Graded (P), calculate C
u
and C
c.









If prefix is G (Gravel) then suffix is W if C
u
> 4 and C
c
is between 1 and 3
otherwise use P

If prefix is S (Sand) then suffix is W if C
u
> 6 and C
c
is between 1 and 3
otherwise use P

C
D
D
u
=
60
10
C
D
D D
c
=

30
2
60 10
( )
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
where C
U
is Coefficient of Uniformity and C
c
is Coefficient of Curvature
Describe the following Soil

2
) 9 )( 02 . 0 (
) 6 . 0 (
) D )( D (
) D (
C
curvature of t Coefficien
450
02 . 0
9
D
D
C
uniformity of t Coefficien
2
60 10
2
30
c
10
60
u
= = =
= = =
mm 9 D
mm 6 . 0 D
) size effective ( mm 02 . 0 D
60
30
10
=
=
=
) (
6 3 1
) (
4 3 1
sands for
C and C
gravels for
C and C
soil graded Well
u c
u c
> s s
> s <

Well Graded Soil
Criteria
USCS
Question
What is the C
u
for a soil with only one grain
size?

D
F
i
n
e
r

1
D
D
C
uniformity of t Coefficien
10
60
u
= =
Grain size distribution

The grading curve for a soil gives the size
characteristics:

d
10
= 0.16 mm and d
60
= 0.47 mm

What is the Uniformity
coefficient (C
u
) and gradation
of the soil?




0.34, well graded
2.94, well graded
2.94, uniformly graded
0.34, uniformly graded
2.94, Uniformly (or Poorly) Graded Sand
Question
-- Atterberg Limits (or Consistency Limits)
Shrinkage Limit, SL
Liquid Limit, LL
Liquid State
Plastic Limit, PL
Plastic State
Semisolid State
Solid State
Dry Soil
Soil-water
mixture
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

w
a
t
e
r

c
o
n
t
e
n
t

Classification of Fine Grained Soils
USCS
Moisture content
massof water
massof solids
=
Volume Change with water content
Atterberg Limits (or Consistency Limits) - Cont.
Liquid and plastic limits
Question
The figure shows how volume and water content are related
in fine soils. Identify the consistency of zones A, B and C?
A. Semi-solid
B. Plastic
C. Liquid
Where
w
s
: shrinkage limit
w
P
: Plastic Limit
w
L
: Liquid Limit
Plastic Limit, Liquid Limit
Liquid and plastic limits
The lower and upper limits of
the PLASTIC range are used to
classify the fine soils.
Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit Plastic Limit
The difference between the liquid limit
(w
L
) and plastic limit (w
P
) is called as
PLASTICITY INDEX (P.I.)
Plasticity Index
Liquid Limit - LL (or w
L
)
Cone Penetrometer Method
This method is developed by the Transport and Road
Research Laboratory, UK.
Casagrande Method
Professor Casagrande standardized the test and
developed the liquid limit device.
LL - Casagrande Method
N=25 blows
Closing distance =
10 mm
Device
The water content, in percentage, required to close a distance of 10 mm
along the bottom of the groove after 25 blows is defined as the liquid limit
LL - Casagrande Method (Cont.)
( )
1 2
2 1
/ log
,
N N
w w
I index Flow
F

=
N
w
LL - Cone Penetrometer Method
31
o
Cone of Stainless steel
Total sliding weight of 148 g
Cylindrical mould of 5 cm diameter and 5 cm height.
Water content w%
P
e
n
e
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

c
o
n
e

(
m
m
)

25 mm
LL
) 15 )( 25 ( 01 . 0 + + =
x x L
w x w w
Where x is the depth of penetration of cone in mm
w
x
is water content corresponding to penetration x
For x = 20 to 30
Plastic Limit PL (or w
P
)
The plastic limit is defined as the water content at which a
soil thread with 3 mm diameter just crumbles.
Soil symbols:
G: Gravel
S: Sand
M: Silt
C: Clay
O: Organic
Pt: Peat
Liquid limit symbols:
H: High LL (LL > 50)
L: Low LL (LL < 50)

Gradation symbols:
W: Well-graded
P: Poorly-graded
Ex: SW: Well-graded Sand
SC: Clayey Sand
SM: Silty Sand
) (
6 3 1
) (
4 3 1
sands for
C and C
gravels for
C and C
soil graded Well
u c
u c
> s s
> s

SYMBOLS Used for USCS Soil Classification

Above A-line use suffix C Clay
Below A-line use suffix M Silt
LL < 50% use Prefix L
LL > 50% use Prefix H
Fine grained soils Silt (M) & Clay (C)
To determine M or C use plasticity chart
0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 1 0 0
L i q u i d l i m i t
0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
5 0
6 0
P
l
a
s
t
i
c
i
t
y

i
n
d
e
x

O
o r
H
H
H
O
o r
C
C
C
M
M
M
L
L
L
L
L
o p a r i n g s o i l s a t e q u a l l i q u i d l i m i t
T o u g h n e s s a n d d r y s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p l a s t i c i t y i n d e
x
Plasticity
Chart
Classification of Fine Grained Soils
Use O below
A Line, if Soil
is Organic
A Line
PI = 0.73(w
L
20)
USCS
Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded zone (i.e.,
PI between 4 and 7 and LL between 12 and 25).
It is hard to distinguish between the silt and claylike
materials.
Use: CL-ML: Silty clay & SC-SM: Silty, clayed sand.
Classification of Fine Grained Soils - Cont.
Borderline Cases (Dual Symbols)
Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.
The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is
well or poorly graded.
The second symbol describe the contained fines (M/C).
Example: SP-SM: Poorly graded Sand with Silt.
USCS
Coarse-grained
material
Grain size
distribution
Fine-grained
material
LL, PI
Highly
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Passing No.200 sieve 30 %
Passing No.4 sieve 70 %
LL= 33
PI= 12
PI= 0.73(LL-20), A-line
PI=0.73(33-20)=9.49
SC
(>15% gravel)
Clayey sand with
gravel
Passing No.200 (0.075 mm) sieve = 30 %
Passing No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve = 70 %
LL= 33%
PI= 12%
Highly
Example
USCS
Textural Classification
1. IS 1498 1970 System
2. U S Bureau of Soils and Chemistry System
Grain size distribution of soil is required
Percentage of soil in each size group is determined
Ex:- Soil 10% Gravel + 52% Sand + 38% Silt & Clay
IS 1498 1970 System
U S Bureau of Soils and Chemistry System
First find the percentages of SAND, SILT and Clay.
Based on the RELATIVE percentages of sand, silt and clay a
POINT is located on the TRIANGULAR CHART which indicates
SOIL TYPE.
1 0 0 9 0 8 0 7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0
1 0 0
9 0
8 0
7 0
6 0
5 0
4 0
3 0
2 0
1 0
0
1 0 0
9 0
8 0
7 0
6 0
5 0
4 0
3 0
2 0
1 0
0
S i l t S i z e s ( % )
S a n d
S i l t y S a n d S a n d y S i l t
C l a y - S a n d C l a y - S i l t
S a n d y C l a y S i l t y C l a y
C l a y
Public Roads Administration Classification System
(AASHTO 1978 System)
Based on both particle size composition and
plasticity characteristics

GROUP INDEX of the soil is determined in order to
rate the soil as a SUBGRADE MATERIAL for
PAVEMENT construction

HIGHER the value of GROUP INDEX, POORER is
the QUALITY of the SOIL.
Field Identification of Soils
Distinguish Gravel from Sand

Sand from Silt

Silt from Clay

Grain Size
Dispersion Test
Dispersion Test
Shaking (Dilatancy) Test
Strength Test
Rolling (Toughness) Test

Organic Content and Color
Organic soils usually have a distinctive odour of decomposed organic
matter, which can be detected by heating.
Acid Test use dilute HCL to check the presence of Calcium Carbonate
Shine Test Highly Plastic soil is more Shine than Low Plastic soil