E-Content Presentation

Subject Class Topic : Chemistry : +1 : Chemical Bonding & Molecular Structure Prepared By : Mr. Rohit Kashmiri, PGT Chemistry, J.N.V. Pandoh, Distt. Mandi, H.P. Chandigarh Region Technical Support : Mr. Rajeev Sharma Provided By F.C.S.A. J.N.V. Paprola, Distt. Kangra, H.P.

INTRODUCTION
Linus Pauling won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 for his work on chemical bonding.

A chemical bond is the physical phenomenon of chemical substances being held together by attraction of atoms to each other through sharing, as well as exchanging, of electrons or electrostatic e forces. In general, strong chemical bonds are found in molecules, crystals or in solid metal and they organize the atoms in ordered structures. Weak chemical bonds are classically explained to be effects of polarity between molecules which contain strong polar bonds. Some very weak bond-like interactions also result from induced polarity London forces between the electron clouds of atoms, or molecules. Such forces allow the liquification and solidification of inert gases. At the very lowest strengths of such interactions, there is no good operational definition of what constitutes a proper definitional "bond".

Learning Objectives
Chemical Inertness of Noble Gases. Types of Chemical Bonds. Covalent Bonds. VSEPR Theory & Shapes of Molecules. Polarity in Covalent Bonds. Quantum theory of Covalent Bonds: Valence Bond Theory. Molecular Orbital Theory. Hybridisation. Hydrogen Bonding

Entry Behaviour
1. Why do certain atoms combine to form molecules whereas other do not? 2. What is the nature of the forces which hold the atoms together in molecules? 3. Why do atoms have fixed combining capacity?

Overview of Presentation

In theory, all bonds can be explained by quantum theory, but in practice, chemical bonds are divided in several categories. Simplifications of quantum theory have been developed to describe and predict the bonds and their properties. These theories include octet theory, valence bond theory, orbital hybridization theory, VSEPR theory, ligand field theory and LCAO -method. Electrostatics and other physical theories are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances. However, in combination, they constitute a powerful theory, which can be applied in almost all of chemistry.

In quantum mechanics, in simplified terms, electrons are located on an atomic orbital (AO), but in a strong chemical bond, they form a molecular orbital (MO). In many theories, these are divided in bonding, anti-bonding, and non-bonding orbitals. They are further divided according the types of atomic orbitals hybridizing to form a bond. These orbitals are results of electron-nucleus interactions that are caused by the fundamental force of electromagnetism. Chemical substances will form a bond if their orbitals become lower in energy when they interact with each other. Different chemical bonds are distinguished that differ by electron cloud shape and by energy levels.

Vocabulary
Glossary of Terms
1. 2. Atomicity of a gas: The number of atoms present in the molecule of a gas is called its atomicity. Bond dipole moment ( ).:A covalent bond between two atoms of different elements is called a polar covalent bond . A polar bond is partly covalent bond and partly ionic. The percentage of ionicity in a covalent bond is called percentage ionic character in that bond . The ionic character in a bond is expressed in terms of bond dipole moment ( ). BORN-HABER CYCLE: This thermochemical cycle was devised by Born and Haber in 1919. It relates the lattice energy of a crystalline substance to other thermochemical data. The Born-Haber cycle is the application of Hess's law to the enthalpy of formation of an ionic solid at 298 K.

3.

4. Chemical bond : The chemical force which keeps the atoms in any molecule together is commonly described as a chemical bond. 5. Chemical compounds :Compounds are generally called chemical compounds because they are formed due to the chemical combination of the combining element. 6. Covalent bond : The Bond formed by Mutual sharing of electrons between the combining atoms of the same or different elements is called covalent bonds. 7. Double covalent bond :The bond formed between two atoms due to the sharing of two electron-pairs is called a double covalent bond or simply a double bond. It is denoted by two small horizontal lines (=) drawn between the two atoms, e.g., O = O, O = C = O etc. 8. Electronegative or nonmetallic character :The tendency of an element to accept electrons to form an anion is called its non metallic or electronegative character. 9. ELECTRONEGATIVITY :The relative tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract a shared pair of electrons towards itself is termed its electronegativity.

10. Electronic configuration:The distribution of electrons amongst various energy levels of a atom is termed its electronic configuration 11. HYBRIDISATION :The process of mixing of the atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals is called hybridisation. 12. Hybrid orbitals :According to the concept of hybridisation, certain atomic orbitals of nearly the same energy undergo mixing to produce equal number of new orbitals. The new orbitals so obtained are called hybrid orbitals. 13. Hybridisation in carbon :Carbon shows sp 3 hybridisation in alkanes, sp 2 hybridisation in alkenes and sp hybridisation in alkynes. 14. HYDROGEN BOND :The bond between the hydrogen atom of one molecule and a more electronegative atom of the same or another molecule is called hydrogen bond. 15. Ionic (or Electrovalent) bond : An ionic (or electrovalent) bond is formed by a complete transfer of one or more electrons from the atom of a metal to that of a non-metal. 16. LATTICE ENERGY (Lattice Enthalpy) :The strength of binding forces in solids is described by the term lattice enthalpy ( L H ) (earlier the term lattice energy was used). The molar enthalpy change accompanying the complete separation of the constituent particles that composed of the solid (such as ions for ionic solids and molecules for molecular solids) under standard conditions is called lattice enthalpy ( H ). The lattice enthalpy is a positive quantity.

17. Lewis Formula (or Electronic Formula) of a Compound :The formula showing the mode of electron-sharing between different atoms in the molecule of a compound is called its electronic formula or Lewis formula. 18. Metallic crystals : In metallic crystals, the valence electrons of all the atoms form a pool of mobile electrons. The nuclei with their inner electrons (called Kernels) are embedded into this pool of free electrons. Thus, the constituent particles in a metallic crystal are the positive kernels in a pool of electrons. 19. NON-POLAR COVALENT BOND :When a covalent bond is formed between two atoms of the same element, the electrons are shared equally between the two atoms. In other words, the shared electron-pair will lie exactly midway between the two atoms. The resulting molecule will be electrically symmetrical, i.e ., centre of the negative charge coincides with the centre of the positive charge. This type of covalent bond is described as a nonpolar covalent bond. The bonds in the molecules H 2 , O 2 , Cl 2 etc., are nonpolar covalent bonds.

20. OCTET RULE : According to this theory, the atoms tend to adjust the arrangement of their electrons in such a way that they ( except H and He ) achieve eight electrons in their outermost shell. This is known as the octet rule . 21. Pi ( ) Bond : A covalent bond formed between the two atoms due to the sideways overlap of their p -orbitals is called a pi ( ) bond.

22. POLAR COVALENT BOND :When a covalent bond is formed between

two atoms of different elements, the bonding pair of electrons does not lie exactly midway between the two atoms. In fact, it lies more towards the atom which has more affinity for electrons. The atom with higher affinity for electrons, thus, develops a slight negative charge, and the atom with lesser affinity for electrons a slight positive charge. Such molecules are called polar molecules. The covalent bond between two unlike atoms which differ in their affinities for electrons is said to be a polar covalent bond. 23. RESONANCE : When a molecule is represented by a number of electronic structures such that none of them can exactly describe all the properties of the molecule, but each structure has a contribution to it, then the molecule is termed as a resonance hybrid of all these structures. Such structures are called resonance structures and such a phenomenon is called resonance. 24. Resonance hybrid :When a molecule is represented by a number of electronic structures such that none of them can exactly describe all the properties of the molecule, but each structure has a contribution to it, then the molecule is termed as a resonance hybrid of all these structures.

25. Sigma ( ) Bond : A covalent bond formed due to the overlap of orbitals of the two atoms along the line joining the two nuclei (orbital axis) is called sigma ( ) bond. 26. Single Covalent Bond : A covalent bond formed by mutual sharing of one pair of electrons is called a single covalent bond, or simply a single bond. A single covalent bond is represented by a small line ( between the two atoms. ) 27. Triple covalent bond : Bond formed due to the sharing of three electronpairs is called a triple covalent bond or simply a triple bond. 28. Valence electrons : Valence is one of the most important chemical property of the elements. The chemical behaviour of an element depends upon the number of electrons in the outermost shell of its atom. The electrons present in the outermost shell are called valence electrons. The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons because the electrons in the outermost shell determine the valence of an element . 29. Valency : The combining capacity of an atom of an element is described in terms of its valency. It may be defined as, The number of hydrogen or chlorine or double the number of oxygen atoms which combine with one atom of the element is termed its valency. It may also be defined as, The number of electrons which an atom loses or gains or shares with other atoms to attain noble gas configuration is termed its valency.

Sub Topic 1: Chemical Inertness of Noble Gases

Noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn), do not form compounds neither among themselves, nor with other elements. Xenon however, forms fluoride and oxyfluoride compounds under drastic conditions. Now, the question is that why do these elements not show chemical reactivity? To answer this, let us consider the electronic configurations of these elements. The electronic configurations of these elements are given below.

From the electronic configurations given above, we see that

All noble gases have their outermost shells completely filled. The atoms of all other elements which show chemical reactivity have less than eight electrons in their outermost shell. Thus, it appears that the chemical reactivity of any element is related to the number and distribution of electrons in its atom. Theoretical physicists have shown that certain number of electrons in certain definite energy levels give stable atoms. The atoms having a total of 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, and 86 electrons are found to be the most stable. These electronic configurations incidently correspond to those of the noble gases. So, it is because of their stable electronic configurations that the noble gases show no chemical reactivity. Logically, it means that the atoms of all other elements are not so stable, and they tend to gain stability by acquiring an electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas element. The atoms tend to adjust the arrangement of their electrons in such a way that they (except H and He) achieve eight electrons in their outermost shell. This is known as the octet rule.

VALENCE ELECTRONS AND VALENCY : The electrons present in the outermost shell (generally termed as valence shell) are called valence electrons. The number of valence electrons in the atoms of certain elements are given below.

"The number of electrons which an atom loses or gains or shares with other atoms to attain noble gas configuration is termed its valency."

ELECTRONIC THEORY OF VALENCY : The combining tendency of atoms was explained by Kossel and Lewis (1916) through their theory called electronic theory of valency. The main postulates of this theory are, (i) The tendency of an atom to take part in chemical combination is determined by the number of valence electrons. The valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost shell of the atom. (ii) The atoms combine by mutual sharing or by transfer of one or more electrons. In doing so, each combining atom acquires stable noble gas electronic configuration having 8 electrons in its outermost shell. This is called octet rule. (iii) The number of electrons which an atom loses, gains or mutually shares to attain noble gas configuration is called its valency. For example, Li, Be, B and C having respectively 1, 2, 3 and 4 electrons, have valence of 1, 2, 3 and 4. The elements N, O, F and Ne having 5, 6, 7 and 8 electrons in their outermost shell show common valence of 3, 2, 1 and 0. Thus, "the common valency of an element is either equal to the number of valence electrons, or it is equal to 8 minus the number of valence electrons."

LEWIS ELECTRON DOT SYMBOLS

An American chemist, G.N. Lewis introduced simple notation to denote the valence electrons in an atom. These notations are called electron dot symbols or Lewis symbols, (or Lewis structures). According to this method, (a) The symbol of the element represents the nucleus along with all the inner electrons which do not take part in the bond formation. (b) The dots on the symbol represent the valence electrons. Thus, the number of dots represents the number of valence electrons. For example, (i) An atom of hydrogen contains one electron in its valence shell. So, its Lewis symbol is

H.
Here, H represents the nucleus of hydrogen and the dot () represents one valence electrons in an atom of hydrogen. (ii) The electronic configuration of chlorine is 2,8,7. Thus, there are seven valence electrons. The Lewis symbol of chlorine atom is

Recapitulation Exercise
1. Draw the Lewis symbols for the following elements. Na, Ca, B, Br, Xe, As, Ge 2. Why are Noble gases monoatomic? 3. Draw Lewis Symbols of O2- , Mg2+ ions. 4. Define Octet Rule.

Sub Topic 2: Types of Chemical Bonds

The type of chemical bond developed between the two combining atoms depends upon the way these atoms acquire a stable noble gas configuration. Elements may combine through any one of the following ways to form stable compounds. i. By the transfer of electrons from the atom of an element to the atom or atoms of another. This gives rise to an ionic (or electrovalent) bond. ii. By mutually sharing the electrons. This gives rise to a covalent bond. iii. By one-sided sharing of electrons. This gives rise to a coordinate bond.

Ionic Bond
An IONIC BOND is an electrostatic interaction that holds together a positively charged ion (cation) and a negatively charged ion (anion). In an ionic bond, one atom loses an electron to another atom, forming a cation and anion, respectively. And, as everyone knows, opposites attract.

Formation of NaCl

Sodium chloride results from ionic bonding.

In table salt, for example, a valence electron from a sodium atom is transferred to a chlorine atom, forming Na+ and Cl-. Because the ions have opposite charges, they are attracted to each other. The loss of a valence electron and the attraction to the atom that took it happen simultaneously.

Properties of Ionic (or electrovalent) Bond An ionic or electrovalent bond has the following characteristics. : (i) An ionic bond is formed due to the coulombic attraction between the positively and negatively charged ions. (ii) An ionic bond is non-directional, i.e., the strength of interaction between two ions depend upon distance, but not on the direction. (iii) An ionic bond gets broken when the substance is dissolved in a polar solvent such as water, or when the substance is melted.
Formation of Some Typical Ionic Compounds The formation of some ionic compounds is explained below.

1. Formation of magnesium chloride, (MgCl2). The electronic configuration of magnesium (At. No. 12) is 2,8,2. So, it has two electrons in its valence shell. The electronic configuration of chlorine (At. no. 17) is 2,8,7. So, it has seven valence electrons. In terms of the Lewis (electron dot) structures, one can write,

2. Formation of aluminium fluoride (AlF3).

Factors Influencing the Formation of an Ionic Bond Formation of an ionic bond is favoured by, (i) Low ionisation enthalpy of the metallic element which forms the cation. (ii) Large electron gain enthalpy (electron affinity) of the non-metallic element which forms the anion. (iii) Large lattice energy, i.e., the smaller size and higher charge of the ions. Lattice Energy The strength of binding forces in solids is described by the term lattice enthalpy (LH) (earlier the term lattice energy was used). The molar enthalpy change accompanying the complete separation of the constituent particles that composed of the solid (such as ions for ionic solids and molecules for molecular solids) under standard conditions is called lattice enthalpy (LH).

The lattice enthalpy is a positive quantity. For example, The enthalpy change for the reaction, under standard conditions. NaCl(s) Na+(g)+ Cl-(g) is the lattice enthalpy of NaCl(s), (LH(NaCl(s)) and that for the reaction, H2O(s) H2O(g) is the lattice enthalpy of the molecular solid ice. The lattice enthalpy of a molecular solid is the same as its standard enthalpy of sublimation. The lattice enthalpy of a metal is the same as its enthalpy of atomisation. The enthalpy change for the reaction, Na+(g) + Cl(g) Na+Cl(crystal) + lattice Enthalpy (U). is equal to -LH (NaCl,s), i.e., heat equal to the lattice enthalpy is released during the formation of crystalline sodium chloride from gaseous ions. Lattice enthalpies (energies) are usually estimated from the thermochemical data using the Born-Haber cycle or by theoretical calculations. It depends upon the following factors: 1. Size of the ions. Smaller the size of the ions, lesser is the internuclear distance. Consequently the inter-ionic attractions will be high & the lattice enthalpy will also be large. 2. Charge on the ions.: Directly proportional to the magnitude of

BORN-HABER CYCLE This thermochemical cycle was devised by Born and Haber in 1919. It relates the lattice energy of a crystalline substance to other thermochemical data. The Born-Haber cycle is the application of Hess's law to the enthalpy of formation of an ionic solid at 298 K.

Formation of crystalline sodium chloride form sodium metal and chlorine gas can be described by the reaction.
Na(s) + Cl2(g) NaCl (crystal) rH = fH = 411 kJ mol1 (energy evolved) This overall reaction can be considered to proceed in a stepwise manner as follows

The signs of the energy involved in each step follow the rule that energy evolved is negative and energy absorbed is positive. These steps are summarized in Fig. 6.3. From the Born-Haber cycle the value for any one of the steps can be calculated if data for all the other steps are known.

Recapitulation Exercise
1. Name the factors which favour the formation of an ionic bond. 2. Out of MgO and NaCl, which has higher lattice energy and why? 3. Draw the Born-Haber for a simple ionic solid such as MX

Sub Topic 3: Covalent Bonds

A covalent bond is formed between two atoms (similar or dissimilar) by a mutual sharing of electrons. The shared pairs of electrons are counted towards the stability of both the participating atoms. A covalent bond is defined as the force of attraction arising due to mutual sharing of electrons between the two atoms. The combining atoms may share one, two or three pairs of electrons. When the two atoms combine by mutual sharing of electrons, then each of the atoms acquires stable configuration of the nearest noble gas. The compounds formed due to covalent bonding are called covalent compounds. Covalency The number of electrons which an atom contributes towards mutual sharing during the formation of a chemical bond is called its covalency in that compound. Thus, the covalency of hydrogen in H2 (H H, H H) is one; that of oxygen in O2 is two (O = O, O O), and that of nitrogen in N2 is three (N N, N N)

Characteristics of a Covalent Bond A covalent bond has the following characteristics. (i) Mode of formation. Covalent bonds are formed due to mutual sharing of one or more pairs of electrons. (ii) Directional character. Covalent bonds are directional in nature. This is because in a covalent bond, the shared pair of electrons remains localised in a definite space between the nuclei of the two atoms. This gives a directional character to the covalent bond. Single Covalent Bond A covalent bond formed by mutual sharing of one pair of electrons is called a single covalent bond, or simply a single bond. A single covalent bond is represented by a small line ( between the two atoms. )

Formation of ammonia (NH3). The electronic configurations of nitrogen and hydrogen are N 1s2 2s2 2p3 or 2,5 H 1s1 or 1 Thus, each nitrogen atom requires three more electrons to acquire a stable noble gas configuration. On the other hand, each H-atom requires only one electron to achieve the stable helium configuration. This is done by mutually sharing three pairs of electrons between one nitrogen and three hydrogen atoms, as shown below.

The unshared pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom (in ammonia molecule) is not involved in bond formation and is called a lone pair of electrons. Since, lone pair of electrons does not take part in bonding, hence it is also called non-bonding pair of electrons.

MULTIPLE COVALENT BONDS: The covalent bonds developed due to mutual sharing of more than one pairs of electrons are termed multiple covalent bonds. These are, Double covalent bond. The bond formed between two atoms due to the sharing of two electron-pairs is called a double covalent bond or simply a double bond. It is denoted by two small horizontal lines (=) drawn between the two atoms, e.g., O = O, O = C = O etc. Triple covalent bond. Bond formed due to the sharing of three electron-pairs is called a triple covalent bond or simply a triple bond. Three small horizontal lines between the two atoms denote a triple bond, e.g., N N, and H C C H (acetylene). Formation of Molecules Having Double & Triple Bonds Some typical molecules having double & triple bonds are described below.

Formation of oxygen (O2) molecule

Oxygen molecules shares two electrons to make a double covalent bond.

Formation of ethyne (C2H2) molecule.

In a molecule of carbon, two atoms share three electrons -- a triple covalent bond.

Comparison Between Single, Double and Triple Covalent Bonds Single, double and triple covalent bonds differ from each other in the following ways. (i) Single bond is formed by the sharing of one electron pair, (two electrons), double bond is formed by the sharing of two electron pairs, (four electrons), whereas a triple bond involves sharing of three electron pairs, (six electrons). (ii) In a triple bond, six electrons attract the nuclei with greater force. This decreases the distance of separation between the two nuclei. In a double bond, four electrons attract the nuclei with a relatively lesser force, and in a single bond, two electrons hold the nuclei with a still lesser force. Therefore, the bond lengths follow the order, Triple bond length < Double bond length < Single bond length Since, a shorter bond means greater bond strength hence, the energy required to separate the bonded atoms (called bond energy) follows the order, Triple bond > Double bond > Single bond Formation of a covalent bond is favoured by, (i) High ionisation enthalpy (or energy) of the combining elements. (ii) Nearly equal electron gain enthalpies (or electron affinities) and equal electronegativities of the combining elements. (iii) High nuclear charge and small atomic size of the combining elements.

COORDINATE COVALENT BOND

Coordinate bond is formed when the shared electron-pair is provided by one of the combining atoms. The atom which provides the electron-pair is termed as the donor atom, while the other atom which accepts it, is termed as the acceptor atom. The bond formed when one-sided sharing of electrons take place is called a coordinate bond. Such a bond is also known as dative bond. A coordinate bond is represented by an arrow () pointing towards the acceptor atom. Formation of Coordinate Bond During the Formation of a Molecule or Molecular ion The formation of such a bond is illustrated through some examples given below. (i) Formation of ammonium (NH4+) ion. During the formation of ammonium ion, nitrogen is the donor atom, while H+ is the acceptor ion as shown below.

EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE The octet rule is very useful for describing bonding in a large number of compounds. However, there are many exceptions to this rule. (i) Where duplet is formed. A hydrogen atom has only one electron in its valence shell. It needs one more electron to fill its valence shell. The completed shell has the electronic arrangement of the noble gas helium. In this case, therefore, an octet is not completed, but we still get a stable molecule. The electron dot structures of a few molecules containing hydrogen atom are shown below:

(ii) Where the octet remains incomplete. The elements of group 1,2 and 13 contain less than four electrons in their valence shell. These elements therefore, cannot achieve an octet by electron sharing. As a result, therefore these elements should not form covalent compounds. But, elements of these groups form some covalent compounds. Boron halides (BF3 and BCl3) are covalent compounds where the octet is incomplete (only six electrons surround the boron atom).

These compounds are thus electron-deficient compounds. (iii) Where the octet is expanded. The elements belonging to groups 15, 16 and 17 have more than four electrons in their outermost shell. The elements of these groups form stable compounds in which there are more than eight electrons around the central atom. For example, PF5, PCl5 and SF6 are some typical compounds of this type.

The Cl and F atoms have 7 electrons in their valence shell. Therefore, they need one more electron each to attain the noble gas configuration. Phosphorus atom has five, and sulphur atom has six electrons in their valence shell. Then, the Lewis structures of PF5 PCl5, and SF6 are written as follows.

Thus, P and S atoms have expanded their shells to accommodate more than eight electrons. Here again, octet rule is violated, but the compounds formed are stable.

Recapitulation Exercise
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Give one example of a compound containing double bond & one containing a triple bond. Describe a coordinate bond, giving one example. How does it differ from the Covalent bond? How does bond multiplicity affect the bond length? Explain the term Electrovalency & Covalency. Write one main difference between an ionic and a covalent bond. Where are the bonding electrons most likely to be found in a diatomic covalent molecule? What happens to the valence electrons when a covalent bond is formed between two atoms?

The VSEPR theory was proposed by R.J. Gillespie and R.S. Nyholmm in 1957. This theory was developed to predict the shapes of the molecules in which the atoms are bonded together with single bonds only. This theory is based on the repulsions between the electron-pairs in the valence-shell of the atoms in the molecule. The main postulates of the VSEPR theory are: (i) The geometry of a molecule is determined by the total number of electron pairs (bonding and non-bonding) around the central atom of the molecule. The shape of the molecule depends upon the orientation of these electron pairs in the space around the central atom. (ii) The electron pairs (shared, or lone pairs) around the central atom in a molecule tend to stay as far away from each other as possible so as to minimize the repulsion forces between them. (iii) The strength of repulsions between different electron pairs follows the order: Lone pair - Lone pair > Lone pair Shared pair > Shared pair Shared pair The shared pairs of electrons are also called bond pairs of electrons. The presence of lone pair(s) of electrons on the central atom causes some distortions in the expected regular shape of the molecule.

Sub Topic 4: VSEPR Theory & Shapes of Molecules

Predicting the Shape of Molecules on the Basis of VSEPR Theory According to the VSEPR theory, the geometry of a molecule is determined by the number of electron-pairs around the central atom. So, to use this theory for predicting the shapes of molecules just count the number of electron pairs (both, shared and lone pairs). The use of this theory in predicting the shapes of molecules is illustrated below by taking a typical molecule of the type ABn, where A is the central atom, B atoms are bonded to A by single electron pair bonds (single covalent bonds), and n is the number of B atoms bonded to one atom of A. For the sake of easier understanding we have divided molecules into various categories Shapes of the molecules having only the bond (shared) pairs of electrons (i) Molecules with two bond pairs. In a molecule having two bond pairs of electrons around its central atom, the bond pairs are located on the opposite sides (at an angle of 180), of the central atom so that the repulsion between them is minimum. Such molecules are therefore linear. For example, in a molecule of the type AB2, in which the central atom A has two electron pairs, the two electron pairs are located on either side of A. Thus, the molecule AB2 takes a linear geometry. Some molecules which show linear geometry are, BeF2 (beryllium fluoride), BeCl2 (beryllium chloride), BeH2 (beryllium hydride), ZnCl2 (zinc chloride), and HgCl2 (mercuric chloride).

(ii) Molecules with three bond pairs. In a molecule having three bond pairs of electrons around its central atom, the electron pairs form an equilateral triangular arrangement around the central atom. Thus, the three bond pairs are at 120C with respect of each other. Therefore, the molecules having three bond pairs around its central atom have trigonal planar (or triangular planar) shape. For example, in a molecule of the type AB3, the three bond pairs of electrons are located around A in a triangular arrangement. Thus, the molecule AB3 has a triangular planar geometry. Some molecules which show triangular planar geometry are; BCl3, BF3 etc.

(iii) Molecules with four bond pairs (AB4 TYPE).

(iv) Molecules with five bond pairs. A molecule having five bond pairs around its central atom has a triangular bipyramidal shape.

(v) Molecules with six bond pairs. The molecules of the type AB6 are octahedral. The molecule SF6 has an octahedral geometry.

Shapes of the molecules having bond pairs and lone pairs of electrons The pair of electrons in the valence shell of an atom which is not involved in bonding is called lone pair of electrons. For example, the nitrogen atom in ammonia molecule has one lone pair of electrons; the oxygen atom in water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons. We describe a few examples of the molecules having one or more lone pairs of electrons. (i) Molecules having three bond pairs and one lone pair. A molecule of B3 type having three bond pairs and one lone pair has a triangular pyramidal shape. Typical molecules of this type are NH3, NF3, PCl3, H3O+ etc.

(ii) Molecules with two bond pairs and two lone pairs.
The four electron pairs (two bond pairs + two lone pairs) are distributed tetrahedrally around the central atom as shown in Fig. 6.4, for a molecule . The two lone pairs on the central atom repel the bond pairs slightly inwards due to greater lone pair - bond pair repulsion. As a result, the bond angle in such a molecule is less than the tetrahedral value of 10928 .

These two representations of the H2O molecule show the electron density as a phantom shading (left) and contour lines (right.) Note how most of the negative charge is concentrated around the oxygen atom.

(iii) Molecules with four bond pairs and two lone pairs. The four bond pairs are distributed in a square planar distribution. The two lone pairs are in a direction at right angles to this plane. Thus, giving a square planar shape to such molecules. Examples include ICl4, XeF4 and [Ni(CN)4]2.

(iv) Molecules with Five Bond Pairs & one lone pair:

(iv) Molecules with Four Bond Pairs & one lone pair, three bond pairs & two lone pairs and two bond pairs & three lone pairs respectively:

Recapitulation Exercise
1. 2. 3. Arrange the following according to the increasing bond angles in them: NH3, H2O and CH4. The HPH angle in PH3 is smaller than the HNH angle in NH3. Why? Predict the shapes of the following molecules following the VSEPR theory. (i) Ammonia (NH3) molecule (ii) Water (H2O) molecule. Predict the shapes of the following molecules using the valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory. BeCl2, SiCl4, AsF5, H2S, HgBr2, PH3, GeF2

4.

Sub Topic 5:

Polarity in Covalent Bonds

Depending upon the chemical nature of the combining elements, the following two types of covalent bonds are formed. Non-polar Covalent Bond When a covalent bond is formed between two atoms of the same element, the electrons are shared equally between the two atoms. In other words, the shared electron-pair will lie exactly midway between the two atoms. The resulting molecule will be electrically symmetrical, i.e., centre of the negative charge coincides with the centre of the positive charge. This type of covalent bond is described as a non-polar covalent bond. The bonds in the molecules H2, O2, Cl2 etc., are non-polar covalent bonds. Polar Covalent Bond When a covalent bond is formed between two atoms of different elements, the bonding pair of electrons does not lie exactly midway between the two atoms. In fact, it lies more towards the atom which has more affinity for electrons. The atom with higher affinity for electrons, thus, develops a slight negative charge, and the atom with lesser affinity for electrons a slight positive charge. Such molecules are called polar molecules. The covalent bond between two unlike atoms which differ in their affinities for electrons is said to be a polar covalent bond.

The compounds having polar bonds are termed polar compounds. Polar substance do not conduct electricity when in their pure forms, but give conducting solutions when dissolved in polar solvents.

The polarity in a bond arises due to the difference in the electronegativities of the combining atoms. Therefore, greater is the difference in the electronegativity values of the combining atoms, greater is the polar character in the bond so formed. For example, in the series H X (X = F, Cl, Br, I), the electronegativity difference between H and X atom follows the order, H F > H Cl > H Br > H I Electronegativity difference: (4 2.1) (3.0 2.1) (2.8 2.1) (2.5 2.1) 1.9 0.9 0.7 0.4 Therefore, the polarity in the H X bond follows the order, H F > H Cl > H Br > H I i.e., H F bond is the most polar and H I bond is the least polar in this series of compounds

IONIC CHARACTER OF BONDS IN POLAR MOLECULES An ionic bond is formed due to complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another. A covalent bond is formed due to mutual sharing of electrons. A covalent bond between two atoms of different elements is called a polar covalent bond. A polar bond is partly covalent bond and partly ionic. The percentage of ionicity in a covalent bond is called percentage ionic character in that bond. The ionic character in a bond is expressed in terms of bond dipole moment (). The dipole moment of a bond depends upon the difference in the electronegativity of the two atoms held together by the chemical bond. The dipole moment of two equal and opposite charges is given by the product of the charge and the distance separating them. Thus,

Dipole moment, = Charge (q) Distance of separation, (r) = q r The dipole moment is a vector quantity, and is represented by an arrow showing the direction from the positive to the negative end of the dipole. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the dipole moment

For non-polar bonds, there is no charge separation. Therefore, q = 0. As a result, therefore the dipole moment of a non-polar bond is zero. Unit of dipole moment. The dipole moments are expressed in the units of Debye (D). 1 Debye = 3.338 1030 m C The ionic character in a bond is related to the dipole moment of the bond by the relationship given below.

Ionic character in a bond increases with the increase in the electronegativity difference between the combining atoms as shown below. Ionic character in H Cl bond. The HCl molecule has a dipole moment of 1.07 D. The H Cl bond length is 127.5 pm (= 1.275 1010 m). Now, if a complete transfer of electrons from H to Cl is assumed, then the Dipole moment of H+ Cl = (Charge on an electron) (Bond length) ionic = = 6.12 D Thus, had the bond between H and Cl been 100% ionic, the dipole moment of HCl molecule should have been 6.12 D. But the actual dipole moment (obs) of HCl molecule is 1.07 D*. So, Ionic character in HCl bond = 100 = 100 = 17% Thus, the estimated ionic character in H Cl bond is about 17%.

A bond with an ionic character of 50% or more is termed as an ionic bond. As a simple estimate, the bond between the two atoms with electronegativity difference of 2 is an ionic bond. A bond between the two atoms with electronegativity difference of less than 1.5 is usually covalent. Dipole Moment of Polyatomic Molecules

So the net dipole is Zero.

Recapitulation Exercise
1. 2. The molecule SO2 has a dipole moment. Is the molecule linear or bent? Explain your reasoning. Predict the dipole moment of (i) a molecule of the type AX4 having square planar geometry. (ii) a molecule of the type AX5 having a trigonal bipyramidal geometry. (iii) a molecule of the type AX6 having an octahedral geometry. Which of the bonds given below is the most and which is the least polar: S O, Cl Cl or Cl O? Justify your answer. Should a polar molecule contain a polar bond?

1.

2.

Sub Topic 5:

Quantum theory of Covalent Bonds: Valence Bond Theory

The first quantum mechanical model to explain the nature and stability of a covalent bond was formulated by Heitler and London 1927. This theory was then modified by Pauling and Slater in 1931. This theory is commonly known as the Valence-bond theory.

The main postulates of the valence bond theory are: i. A covalent bond is formed due to the overlap of the outermost halffilled orbitals of the combining atoms. The strength of the bond is determined by the extent of overlap. ii. The two half-filled orbitals involved in the covalent bond formation should contain electrons with opposite spins. The two electrons then move under the influence of both the nuclei. iii. The completely-filled orbitals (orbitals containing two paired electrons) do not take part in the bond formation.

iv.

An s-orbital does not show any preference for direction. The nonspherical orbitals such as, p- and d-orbitals tend to form bonds in the direction of the maximum overlap, i.e., along the orbital axis. v. Between the two orbitals of the same energy, the orbital which is non-spherical (e.g., p- and d- orbitals forms stronger bonds than the orbital which is spherically symmetrical, e.g., s-orbital. vi. The valence of an element is equal to the number of half-filled orbitals present in it. In the valence bond model, the stability of a molecule is explained in terms of the following types of interactions. a. electron - nuclei attractive interactions, i.e., the electrons of one atom are attracted by the nucleus of the other atom also. b. electron - electron repulsive interactions, i.e., electrons of one atom are repelled by the electrons of the other atom. c. nucleus - nucleus repulsive interactions, i.e., nucleus of one atom is repelled by the nucleus of the other atom. Various interactions which act between the two atoms are shown in Fig.

The attractive and the repulsive interactions oppose each other. When the attractive interactions are stronger than the repulsive interactions, certain amount of energy is released. Due to the lowering of energy the molecule becomes stable. Valence Bond Description of Hydrogen Molecule

Chemical Bond and the Valence Bond Theory: The Orbital Overlap In the beginning, atoms in a molecule were thought to be held by bonds. These bonds are represented by drawing a small line ( between the combining ) atoms. Lewis described a chemical bond in terms of pair of electrons shared by the combining atoms. So, the pair of electrons shared by the two nuclei may be considered to be a chemical bond. Thus, the line drawn between the two atoms to represent a chemical bond in the older concept, may be seen as a shared pair of electrons in the Lewis concept. Sharing of an electron pair is possible only when the atom are close enough to overlap their orbitals. Thus, the orbital overlap is necessary for the sharing of electrons and hence for the bond formation. TYPES OF OVERLAPPING Various types of atomic orbital overlap leading to the formation of covalent bond are: 1. s s overlap . In this type of overlap, half-filled s -orbitals of the two combining atoms overlap each other. This is shown in Fig.

2. s p overlap . Here a half-filled s -orbital of one atom overlaps with one of the p -orbitals having only one electron in it. This is shown in Fig

3. pp overlap along the orbital axis. This is called head on, end-on or endto-end linear overlap. Here, the overlap of the two half-filled p-orbitals takes place along the line joining the two nuclei. This is shown in Fig.

4. pp sideways overlap. This is also called lateral overlap. In this types of overlap, two p-orbitals overlap each other along a line perpendicular to the internuclear axis, i.e., the two overlapping porbitals are parallel to each other. This is shown in Fig.

TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS: SIGMA () AND PI () BONDS The overlapping of orbitals is possible in two ways. (i) along their orbital axis so that the electron density along the axis is maximum. (ii) along a direction perpendicular to the bond axis due to sideways overlap of the orbitals. Depending upon the manner in which the two atomic orbitals overlap with each other, two types of bonds are formed. These are called, sigma () bond, and pi () bond.

A covalent bond formed due to the overlap of orbitals of the two atoms along the line joining the two nuclei (orbital axis) is called sigma ( ) bond. For example, the bond formed due to s-s and s-p, and p-p overlap along the orbital axis are sigma bonds, (by convention Z-axis is taken as inter-nuclear axis.

A covalent bond formed between the two atoms due to the sideways overlap of their p -orbitals is called a pi ( ) bond

Comparison of Sigma () and Pi () Bonds

1. It is formed due to axial overlap of the twoorbitals. The overlap may be of s-s, s-p, pp orbitals. 2. There can be only one sigma bond between atoms. 3. The electron density is maximum and cylindrically symmetrical about the bond axis. 4. The bonding is relatively strong. 5. Free rotation of atoms about sigma () bond is possible. 6. It can be formed independently, i.e., there can be a sigma () bond without having a bond in any molecule.

Sigma () bond

Pi () bond
1. This bond is formed by the lateral (sideways) overlap of two p-orbitals. 2. There can be more than one -bond between the two atoms. 3. The electron density is high along a direcion tion at right angle to the bond axis. 4. The bonding due to a -bond is weak. 5. Free rotation about a bond is not possible. 6. The bond is formed only after bond has been formed.

Recapitulation Exercise
1. What is the basis of valence bond theory? 2. Identify two repulsive forces and two attractive forces that influence the formation of a chemical bond between two atoms. 3. What is meant by orbital overlap. 4. Show the formation of a bond by the overlap ofs-s overlap. Mark the area where the electron density is higher.
1.

Sub Topic 6:

Molecular Orbital Theory

Molecular orbital theory was put forward by R.S. Mulliken to explain the nature of bonding in the molecules of covalent compounds. Mulliken was awarded Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1966. Major postulates of the theory are: (i) The wavefunction of an electron in a molecule is called molecular orbital (MO). The molecular orbital surrounds all the nuclei in the molecule, i.e., MOs are polycentric. (ii) The atomic orbitals (AOs) of nearly equal energy, and appropriate symmetry combine to give equal number of MOs. The MOs are constructed by the linear combination of the atomic orbitals (LCAO method). (iii) MO of lower energy is called bonding molecular orbital ( b ), while that of higher energy as antibonding molecular orbital ( a ),

(v) The electrons of the constituent atoms of a molecule are distributed over all the available MOs in accordance with the Aufbau principle, the Pauli's exclusion principle and Hunds rule. (vi) Like atomic orbitals (AOs), the molecular orbitals can also be arranged according to their energies. The internuclear axis is taken to be in the z-direction. For the molecule or molecular ions formed from Li, Be, B, C, and N, the energies of 2s and 2p orbitals are quite close to each other. Because of the repulsion between the electrons that occupy 2s and 2p orbitals, the energy of the 2p molecular orbital gets raised. Relative to 2p orbitals.

Splitting patterns for the second row Diatomic

If we combine the splitting schemes for the 2s and 2p orbitals, we can predict bond order in all of the diatomic molecules and ions composed of elements in the first complete row of the periodic table. Remember that only the valence orbitals of the atoms need be considered.

One minor complication that you should be aware of is that the relative energies of the and bonding molecular orbitals are reversed in some of the second-row diatomics.

The presence of one or more unpaired electrons accounts for the paramagnetic nature of the molecule. The electronic configuration in which all the electrons are paired indicate the diamagnetic nature of the species. The strength of a chemical bond is described in terms of a parameter called bond order. As per definition, the bond order is expressed as, Bond order = (No. of electrons in BMO-No. of electrons in ABMO)/2=(Nb-Na)/2 where, N b is the total number of electrons in bonding MOs. N a is the total number of electrons in antibonding MOs. (a) When, N b > N a : Bond order > 0 (+ ve). Then, a stable bond formation is indicated. (b) When, N b = N a : Bond order = 0. Then, the bond is unstable. In fact. such a bond is not formed. Conditions For the Formation of MOs From the Atomic Orbitals Formation of MOs by the combination of atomic orbitals takes place only if the following conditions are satisfied: (i) The combining atomic orbitals should have nearly equal energies. Only the atomic orbitals of nearly the same energy combine to form MOs. For example, 1s atomic orbitals of two atoms can combine to form one bonding ( 1s ) and one antibonding ( * 1s ) orbitals. The 1s atomic orbital of one atom cannot combine with 2s or 2p atomic orbital of the other atom.

(ii) The combining atomic orbitals should have the same symmetry. The atomic orbitals are oriented in space. Only those atomic orbitals can combine to form molecular orbitals which have the same symmetry about the molecular axis. For example, a p x orbital of an atom can combine with a p x orbital of another atom. A p x orbital cannot combine with a p z orbital. (iii) The combining atomic orbitals should overlap effectively. MOs are formed only if the combining atomic orbitals overlap to a reasonable extent. In-phase and out-of-phase wave combinations Matter waves corresponding to the two separate hydrogen 1s orbitals interact; both in-phase and out-of-phase combinations are possible, and both occur. One of the resultants is the bonding orbital that we just considered. The other, corresponding to out-of-phase combination of the two orbitals, gives rise to a molecular orbital that has its greatest electron probability in what is clearly the antibonding region of space. This second orbital is therefore called an antibonding orbital.

Dicarbon

Dioxygen

Recapitulation Exercise
1. Write the molecular orbital configurations for O22 and O22+ , and stating a reason, predict which of them will be more stable. 2. Calculate the bond order of O2 molecular ion. 3. What is the bond order in molecular ion O2 4. Calculate the bond orders for He2 and O2+ . 5. Arrange the following molecular species in increasing order of stability (giving bond orders): O2 , O2+ , O2 , O 22 .

Sub Topic 7:

Hybridisation
The concept of hydridisation is used to explain the nature of bonds, and shape of the polyatomic molecules. For an isolated atom hybridisation has no meaning. According to the concept of hybridisation, certain atomic orbitals of nearly the same energy undergo mixing to produce equal number of new orbitals. The new orbitals so obtained are called hybrid orbitals. The process of mixing of the atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals is called hybridisation. All hybrid orbitals of a particular kind have equal energy, identical shapes and are symmetrically oriented in space. The types of atomic orbitals involved in hybridisation, and the nature of hybridisation depends upon the requirements of the reaction. For example, carbon in methane (CH4) shows sp3 hybridisation. In ethene (ethylene, C2H4), it exhibits sp2 hybridisation. In ethyne (acetylene, C2H2) it shows sp hybridisation.

The hybrid orbitals are designated according to the type and the number of atomic orbitals merging together. For example, Mixing orbitals one s and three pone s and two pone s and one pHybrid orbital four sp3 orbitals three sp2 orbitals two sp orbitals Hybridisation sp3 hybridisation sp2 hybridisation sp hybridisation

Conditions Necessary For Hybridisation Atomic orbitals undergo hybridisation only if the following conditions are satisfied. (i) Atomic orbitals of the same atom participate in hybridisation. Electrons present in these atomic orbitals do not participate in the hybridisation, and occupy the hybrid orbitals as usual. (ii) The atomic orbitals participating in hybridisation should have nearly equal energy. (i) Characteristics of Hybrid Orbitals The characteristics of hybrid orbitals are: i. The number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of the atomic orbitals participating in hybridisation.

ii.

All hybrid orbitals are equivalent in shape, and energy, but different from the participating atomic orbitals. iii. A hybrid orbital which takes part in the bond formation must contain only one electron in it. iv. A hybrid orbital, like atomic orbitals, cannot have more than two electrons. The two electrons should have their spins paired. v. Due to the electronic repulsions between the hybrid orbitals, they tend to remain at the maximum distance from each other Types of Hybridisation Depending upon the nature of the orbitals involved in hybridisation, different types of hybridisation become possible. The type of hybridisation shown by an atom depends upon the requirements of the reaction. sp3 (es pee three) hybridisation. In any atom, corresponding to energy levels (or shells) for which n 2, there is one s orbital and three p orbitals. For example, for n = 2, we have one 2s and three 2p orbitals; for n = 3, we have one 3s, and three 3p orbitals. These four orbitals undergo mixing to provide four new hybrid orbitals.

s + (px + py + pz) one s-orbital three p-orbitals

sp3

four hybrid orbitals

Hybridisation sp3 , geometry tetrahedral, bond angle 109.5

 sp2 (ess pee two) hybridisation. In certain reactions, one s and two p (say px and py) orbitals of an atom undergo mixing to produce three equivalent sp2 hybridised orbitals. The three sp2 hybrid orbitals are oriented in a plane along the three corners of an equilateral triangle, i.e., they are inclined to each other at an angle of 120. The third porbital (say pz here) remains unchanged. Each hybrid orbital has 33.3% s-character and 66.7% p-character. Formation of sp2-hybrid orbitals from one s and two p-orbitals is shown in Fig. 6.43. s + (px + py) sp2 one s-orbital two p-orbitals three hybrid orbitals

Boron trifluoride has a plane trigonal shape in which all three bonds are identical.

Hybridisation sp2 , geometry trigonal planar, bond angle 120

 sp (ess-pee) hybridisation. In this type of hybridisation, one s and one p (say pz) orbitals belonging to the same main energy level hybridise to give two sp hybrid orbitals. These sp hybrid orbitals are oriented at an angle of 180 to each other. Each hybrid orbital has 50% s- and 50% pcharacter. The other two p-orbitals (say 2px and 2py) remain unhybridised and are oriented at right angles to each other and to the internuclear axis.

Hybridisation sp , geometry Linear, bond angle 180

Formation of ethene molecule.

Formation of ethyne (acetylene) molecule.

Recapitulation Exercise
1. Give one example each of sp, sp2 & sp3 Hybridisation. 2. Arrange the following in the decreasing order of their bond angles: NH3, CO2, CH4, C2H6, , C2H2 3. Describe all the conditions necessary for Hybridisation.

Sub Topic 8:

Hydrogen Bonding
If a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative element such as fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, then the shared pair of electrons lies more towards the electronegative element. This leads to a polarity in the bond in such a way that a slight positive charge gets developed on Hatom, viz., H+ : O H+ : F H+ : N This positive charge on hydrogen can exert electrostatic attraction on the negatively charged electronegative atom of the same or the other molecule forming a bridge-like structure such as X H+ Y H+ where X and Y are the atoms of strongly electronegative elements. The bond between the hydrogen atom of one molecule and a more electronegative atom of the same or another molecule is called hydrogen bond.

A hydrogen bond is shown by a dotted line (.....). Hydrogen bond is not a covalent bond as the 1s orbital of hydrogen is already completed, and the 2s level is high up in its energy. Conditions Necessary For the Formation of Hydrogen Bond Hydrogen bond is formed only when the following conditions are satisfied. (i) Only the molecules in which hydrogen atoms is linked to an atom of highly electro-negative element, are capable of forming hydrogen bonds. (ii) The atom of the highly electronegative element should be small. These conditions are met by fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen atoms. As a results, all compounds containing hydrogen atom linked to an atom of either N, O, or F exhibit hydrogen bonding. Some Typical Compounds Showing Hydrogen Bonding Hydrogen fluoride (HF).

Water (H2O).

Ice (H2O(s)). Each Oxygen is "linked" in by a combination of a covalent bond and a hydrogen bond to 4 other Oxygens.

Notice that each Oxygen can be linked to Hydrogen in one of two ways.

Or

Types of Hydrogen Bonding There are two types of hydrogen bonding, viz., (a) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding (b) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding When the hydrogen bonding is between the H-atom of one molecule and an atom of the electronegative element of another molecule, it is termed as intermolecular hydrogen bonding. For example, hydrogen bonding in water, ammonia etc., is intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

The intramolecular hydrogen bonding is between the hydrogen of one functional group, and the electronegative atom of the adjacent functional group in the same molecule. For example, the molecule of o-nitrophenol, shows intramolecular hydrogen bonding. The pnitrophenol shows intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

Recapitulation Exercise
1. What is a hydrogen bond? 2. Which type of compounds exhibit hydrogen bonding? 3. By giving suitable examples differentiate between intermolecular & intramolecular hydrogen bonding.

SUMMARY
Here's a quick summary of how to predict the type of bond likely to be found in any given substance: 1. Two nonmetal atoms usually form covalent bonds. A metal and a nonmetal atom usually form ionic bonds. Why? Great question! It happens by the numbers in this case, electronegativity values. The covalent bonds between nonmetal atoms have relatively low differences in electronegativity values. Looking at the periodic table (again!) reveals that electronegativity values for the nonmetals generally range from 2.0 to 4.0 (with a few exceptions). Because the electronegativity values are fairly similar for all nonmetal atoms, they should have low differences in electronegativity values. For example, a carbonoxygen bond has an electronegativity difference of 1.0. This value is considered rather low.

 Guess what happens with ionic bonds because they usually occur between a metal and a nonmetal atom? The periodic table shows that metal atoms generally have electronegativity values that range from 0.7 to 1.5. The difference in electronegativity between metal and nonmetal atoms in an ionic bond is therefore relatively high compared to the difference in covalent bonds. For example, a common ionic solid is table salt (NaCl). The difference in electronegativity values for sodium and chlorine is 2.1. This value for the ionic bond between sodium and chlorine is two times greater than the value of 1.0 for the covalent carbon-oxygen bond.

Try It Out! Identify the following bonds as covalent, ionic, or polar covalent: H-O C-C

K-Cl

H-H

References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Physical Chemistry by Puri, Sharma & Pathania. Inorganic Chemistry by J.D.Lee. Modern abc of Chemistry by S.P. Johar. New Course Chemistry by Pradeep Publications. Organic Chemistry by Morrison & Void. Internet