Lecture 5

Provincial Administration, Economy and Commerce. The Ottomans and Europe

Structure of Ottoman Society

Askeri

Reaya Christians

Jews

Muslims

Askeri did not pay taxes literally means military; the military constituted the bulk of this class Military janissaries, the Cavalry of the Six divisions (also recruited through the devshirme), and the sipahis members of the cavalry The sipahis cavalry the majority of the army even later when the janissary corps expanded The askeri included other groups e.g. members of the religious establishment and people who were tax-exempt because they provided special services or were employed in professions deemed essential by the Ottoman state e.g. rice-cultivation to provision the army, guard mountain passes Reaya paid taxes Literally means flock Included peasants, artisans, merchants, etc.

Sipahis during the second siege of Vienna, 1683

Janissaries at the siege of Rhodes, 1522

The Timar System Late 14th 16th c. the timar system was the basis for provincial administration in the Ottoman Empire; linked to the military

Late 16th -17th c. changes in the timar system part of the larger transformations taking place in the Ottoman Empire
Janissaries paid in cash Sipahis paid from the income of fiefs timars Ottoman flexibility Timar system was not applied throughout all Ottoman provinces; the Balkans/Rumeli and Anatolia were the main regions where the system was applied Other parts of the Empire other forms of administration and extraction of revenue

Timar An estate, a piece of land, usually comprising a group of villages Timar was not private property; the sipahi (timar holder) did not own it; he administered it and lived off its tax income for a certain period of time, as long as he fought in the army Timar could not be left as inheritance, nor could it be inherited At the end of tenure the sipahi was frequently awarded another timar in a different location Services often determined the size of a timar a sipahi could receive Types of timar Timar income of up to 20,000 ake a year Zeamet up to 100,000 ake a year, Hass 100,000 ake or more a year

16th c. sipahis a hereditary caste; sons of sipahis could inherit the right of a timar, still the military services they provided were crucial in determining the allocation of a timar

Until mid-16th c territorial expansion, plenty of land for distribution

Services provided by the sipahi Military service show up at times of campaign Arm and equip retainers and bring them to the campaign Administrative services administer the timar, oversee production; collect taxes Local policing responsibilities

Timar system based on pre-Ottoman practices Similarities to the Byzantine pronoia Also many common features with the iqta system practiced throughout the Middle East, especially under the Seljuks; differences iqta income went partly to support a cavalry man and partly to private interests
Categories of land in the Ottoman Empire Private very small part of the land Land under the administration of charitable trusts (vakfs) larger proportion of the land State-owned the bulk of all land Timar system was implemented on state-owned land

Ottoman surveys (tahrir) and Ottoman land survey registers (tahrir defterleri) Surveys conducted immediately after the conquest of a particular area to record cities, villages, populations (families), buildings, their owners, mines, customs houses and other sources of revenue; determine the taxes the local populations had paid before the Ottoman conquest Two types of registers full, summary (icmal) and detailed (mufassal) Later surveys undertaken at certain periods to determine any changes every 15-20 years, upon the accession of every new sultan Until 16th c. the survey records were the primary way of keeping in check the timar holders; from late 15th c. incorporation of law-books at the beginning of each register to set the timariots rights and services he owed A way of keeping in check the reaya Surveys pre-Ottoman origin an Ilkhanid and Seljuk practice 17th c. the practice of keeping defters gradually died out First surviving survey book the survey defter for Albania 1431-1432 Surveys not always smooth cases when the surveyor was killed, local populations revolted or fled

A page from a detailed register for the year 910/911 AH [1505 AD], OAK 265/68

Institution: National Library Sts. Cyril and Methodius, Sofia, Bulgaria

Taxes payable to the sipahis The chift tax in Anatolia, ispenje in Rumeli originally in kind and in services; later in cash Tithes on cereals and pulses originally in kind, later in cash Tax on the lambs (agnam resmi) Some taxes related to the specifics of the local economy in wine-producing areas taxes on wine Various fees Taxes payable to the central treasury Extraordinary taxes avarz, nzl and srsat at first imposed in times of war but later in the 17th c. became ordinary taxes Jizye tax paid by non-Muslims, paid in cash Other sources of revenue for the central treasury customs fees internal and external, fees for an appointment to public service, tributes from vassal states

Provincial administrative hierarchy Timar holders at the lowest level, combination of military and administrative responsibilities Sanjak governors also members of the askeri class, paid by timars, office was not hereditary, depended on the services he provided, administrative and military duties administer and take care of keeping order in the sanjak; during mobilization gather the timar holders under their command Province governors at the top askeri, paid by timars, office not hereditary; a combination of administrative and military duties maintain order, allocated fiefs, etc., during military campaigns organized and led the troops from the province in one distinct military unit in the Ottoman army

The reaya The position of the peasants and the taxes they owed were determined by the survey; they could not change it until the next survey Peasants did not own the land, they had a title to cultivate a particular plot in accordance with their means; punished if they failed to do so or if they failed to pay the necessary taxes Only limited possibilities for movement, still escape to the cities or to other parts of the Empire were not unheard of

Regional Specifics of Provincial Administration 16th c. considered to be the peak of centralization but still in some areas the Ottomans relied on local dynasties or power holders to administer a particular region and collect taxes Ottoman flexibility Rumeli and Anatolia the core provinces, central control the strongest Provinces north of the Danube still in the hands of local rulers, the sultans authority was more limited North Africa no direct rule, relied on local dynasties In eastern Anatolia, Iraq and the Arabian peninsula local tribal or other leaders essential to Ottoman control Egypt an Ottoman governor but strong local elites

Ottoman Egypt Timar system not implemented in Egypt not convenient Direct Ottoman intervention in the administration of the province very limited

Egypt administered as one big tax-farm the Ottoman governor collected the taxes and paid a pre-arranged amount to the central treasury in Istanbul; the rest for him and the local officials
Re-emergence of the Mamluks military slaves of various ethnic backgrounds Establishment of Mamluk households by the Ottoman governors; later on powerful Mamluks established their Mamluk households 17th c. leaders of the Mamluk households began to take unofficial positions and emerged as the de-facto rulers of the province

The Ottoman Economy and Commerce Agriculture primary economic occupation of the Ottoman population, peasants the overwhelming majority Crafts in the cities Commerce Main principle in Ottoman trade ensure the self-sufficiency of the Empire Ensure adequate supplies of primary goods in the Empire, store them, and avoid economic scarcity Commerce heavily regulated by the government Ottoman international trade focused on imports Most exports were prohibited, particularly those that could benefit potential enemies; controlled items wheat, cotton, wool and leather 16th c. beginning of export of some luxury items

 Imports concern about the export of silver or gold Customs dues compensation of income Customs dues rates Muslim traders and European traders with capitulations treaties 3%; Ottoman non-Muslims 5% Internal trade producers compelled to sell their products to the government at special low rates Artisans and shop-keepers allowed to make only 10-20% profit on the products they sold Merchants Europeans, local non-Muslims and local Muslims

Ottoman Muslim subjects active mostly in internal trade but some were also involved in international trade Ottoman non-Muslims (Armenians, Jews, Greeks) dominant internal and international trade Slave trade the only kind of trade activity dominated by Muslims, although occasional cases of unofficial non-Muslim slave traders

Fondaco dei Turchi in Venice the building that used to house the Ottoman Muslim merchants in the city

Merchants often dispatched agents to travel to Europe on their behalf; establishment of contacts with European trading partners

Europeans international trade Trading privileges through special treaties the capitulations Venetians and Genoese the first to secure such privileges 1535 Capitulations treaty with France By the 18th c. every European country had a capitulations treaty with the Ottoman Empire Rights and responsibilities European merchants were allowed to reside in certain cities, did not pay the jizye, in disputes involving local subjects Muslim or non-Muslim had to go to the sharia court, exempt from some fees and taxes 17th c. more extensive privileges bring every disputed case of up to 4,000 akces to Istanbul, activities beyond the jurisdiction of local courts Employment of Ottoman non-Muslim subjects as translators tax-exempt, often acquired privileges equal to those of foreign subjects

More important terms Askeri Reaya Timar Sipahi capitulations