Maps as Numbers

Getting Started with GIS Chapter 3

Chapter 3: Maps as Numbers

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3.1 Representing Maps as Numbers 3.2 Structuring Attributes 3.3 Structuring Maps 3.4 Why Topology Matters 3.5 Formats for GIS Data 3.6 Exchanging Data

Maps as Numbers
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GIS requires that both data and maps be represented as numbers. The GIS places data into the computers memory in a physical data structure (i.e. files and directories). Files can be written in binary or as ASCII text. Binary is faster to read and smaller, ASCII can be read by humans and edited but uses more space.

The Data Model

A logical data model is how data are organized for use by the GIS. s GISs have traditionally used either raster or vector for maps.
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Rasters and vectors can be flat files if they are simple

Beethoven is vector Mozart is raster!

Key Elements of Raster Data

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Square cells forming a grid Cell size determines the resolution of the data The Grid has an extent, often rectangular and typically covers areas outside the region of interest Generally has imperfect fit to the feature of interest Each cell can be owned by only one feature type Each cell in a grid must be made large enough to hold the largest value of the attributes to be stored in the grid Linking attributes to cells are simpler via indexing

Key Elements of Vector Data

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Composed of points (coordinates) Irregular shapes can be drawn correctly by increasing the number of points but with less than the number of raster cells - accuracy Only the feature of interest needs to be stored efficient storage Not good in representing continuous variables such as elevation Linking the attributes are more complex for lines and polygons. A file to identify the lines is needed For a polygon both a file to identify the polygon and the file to identify the lines making that polygon is needed

Features and Maps

A GIS map is a scaled-down digital representation of point, line, area, and volume features. s While most GIS systems can handle raster and vector, only one is used for the internal organization of spatial data.
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Attribute data
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Attribute data are stored logically in flat files. A flat file is a matrix of numbers and values stored in rows and columns, like a spreadsheet. Both logical and physical data models have evolved over time. DBMSs use many different methods to store and manage flat files in physical files.

A raster data model uses a grid.

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One grid cell is one unit or holds one attribute. Every cell has a value, even if it is missing. A cell can hold a number or an index value standing for an attribute. A cell has a resolution, given as the cell size in ground units.

Generic structure for a grid

The mixed pixel problem

Grids and missing data

Rasters are faster...

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Points and lines in raster format have to move to a cell center. Lines can become fat. Areas may need separately coded edges. Each cell can be owned by only one feature. As data, all cells must be able to hold the maximum cell value. Rasters are easy to understand, easy to read and write, and easy to draw on the screen.

RASTER
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A grid or raster maps directly onto a programming computer memory structure called an array. Grids are poor at representing points, lines and areas, but good at surfaces. Grids are good only at very localized topology, and weak otherwise. Grids are a natural for scanned or remotely sensed data. Grids suffer from the mixed pixel problem. Grids must often include redundant or missing data. Grid compression techniques used in GIS are run-length encoding and quad trees.

Saving Storage Space

Run Length Encoding s Quad Tree Structure
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The quad-tree structure

The Vector Model

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A vector data model uses points stored by their real (earth) coordinates. Lines and areas are built from sequences of points in order. Lines have a direction to the ordering of the points. Polygons can be built from points or lines. Vectors can store information about topology.

VECTOR
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At first, GISs used vector data and cartographic spaghetti structures. Vector data evolved the arc/node model in the 1960s. In the arc/node model, an area consist of lines and a line consists of points. Points, lines, and areas can each be stored in their own files, with links between them. The topological vector model uses the line (arc) as a basic unit. Areas (polygons) are built up from arcs. The endpoint of a line (arc) is called a node. Arc junctions are only at nodes. Stored with the arc is the topology (i.e. the connecting arcs and left and right polygons).

Vectors just seemed more correcter.

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TIN must be used to represent volumes. Vector can represent point, line, and area features very accurately. Vectors are far more efficient than grids. Vectors work well with pen and light-plotting devices and tablet digitizers. Vectors are not good at continuous coverages or plotters that fill areas.

TOPOLOGY
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Topological data structures dominate GIS software. Topology allows automated error detection and elimination. Rarely are maps topologically clean when digitized or imported. A GIS has to be able to build topology from unconnected arcs. Nodes that are close together are snapped. Slivers due to double digitizing and overlay are eliminated.

TOPOLOGY
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Is the branch of Mathematics that deals with geometric properties which remain constant under certain transformation such as stretching or bending. Connections and relationships described independent of coordinates which remains fixed Under stretching/bending Distance, Angle (shape), Relative proximity changes Adjacencies, Crossings, types of spatial objects dont change Strictly speaking, Topological properties are those which remains unchanged

WHY TOPOLOGY
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It gives the GIS the sense of recognition of spatial objects similar to the way we see a map and recognize connections/relationship

TOPOLOGY in GIS
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A GIS database is called Topological if the following relationships are computed and stored: Connection of lines at intersections Ordered sets of lines forming each polygon boundary (area definition) Adjacency relationship between Polygons (contiguity) Topology is established from the data structure by computer programs that creates the links and their connections If a GIS database lacks these connections it is called cartographic (Spaghetti) These are less useful for analysis but good enough to make maps These can be converted by computing topological relationships