UG20.

02 Electromagnetism and Optics I 3(2-1)

SAITM AIT Program B.Sc. in Engineering in (ICT/ Mechatronics/ Electronics)

Department of Mechatronics, Faculty of Engineering, South Asian Institute of Technology and Management (SAITM)

Topics Covered by week by week

Week 1 and 2: (chapter 16, pg. 439)
Electrostatics, electric current and electric force, Kirchhoff's laws and linear circuits, Electric charge, Coulomb's law, Electric fields, field lines and forces.

January 2010

ICT 1102 - Electromagnetism and Optics I

Topics Covered by week by week

Week 1 and 2:
Electric dipoles, Electric flux, Gauss's law, Electric potential and potential energy, Potential difference and gradient, Capacitance, Series and parallel. Energy storage
January 2010 ICT 1102 - Electromagnetism and Optics I 3

Static electricity; electric charge and its conservation

The word electricity comes from the Greek word Electron, which means amber (variant of tree resin, If you rub on a cloth it will attack small leaves) A piece of hard rubber, a glass rod, or a plastic ruler rubbed with a cloth will also display this amber effect or static electricity as we call it today An object becomes charged as a result of rubbing, and is said to posses a net electric charge

Static electricity; electric charge and its conservation

There are two types of electric charge Each type of charge repels the same type but attracts the opposite type
That is unlike charges attracts Like charges repel

Benjamin Franklin named them as Positive and Negative

Charge on rubbed glass rod is positive Charge on rubbed plastic ruler is negative

Static electricity; electric charge and its conservation

Franklin said that
Whenever a certain amount of charge is produced on one object, an equal amount of the opposite type of charge is produced on another object So during any process, the net change in the amount of charge produced is zero

The law of conservation of electric charge

The net amount of electric charge produced in any process is zero Or in another way: no net electric charge can be created or destroyed

Electrical charge in atom

Simplified model of an atom
Tiny, heavy, positively charged nucleus surrounded by one or more negatively charged electrons Nucleus contains protons (positively charged) and neutrons (no net electric charge) Ion: atom with net positive or negative charge
By losing its electrons Or by gaining more electrons

Electrical charge in atom

In solid materials,
Nuclei tend to remain close to fixed positions Some electrons may move quite freely When an object is neutral, it contains equal amounts of positive and negative charge

Charging of an object by rubbing

Transfer of electrons from one object to the other Hold their charge only for a limited time and eventually return to the normal state

Electrical charge in atom

Charge leaks-off into water molecules in air Because, water molecules are polar
Neutral but charge is not distributed uniformly Extra electrons on object are attracted to positive end of water molecules Positively charged objects attract electrons from water molecules

In liquids and gases, nuclei or ions can move as well as electrons

Insulators and conductors

Conductors: materials like iron, metals are good conductors Non conductors (insulators): wood, rubber Semiconductors: silicon, germanium

Insulators and conductors

In an insulating material, electrons are bound very tightly to nuclei In a good conductor, some of the electrons are bound very loosely, can move about freely (cannot leave object easily) within the material (free electrons or conduction electrons) When a positively charged object is brought close to or touches a conductor, the free electrons in the conductor are attracted by this positively charged object and move quickly toward it
Free electrons move away from a negatively charged object

In a semiconductor very fewer free electrons, in a insulator almost none

Induced charge; the electroscope

Scenario 1: A positively charged metal object is brought close to an uncharged metal object
If the two touch, free electrons in neutral one are attracted to the positively charged object and some will pass over it Now the originally neutral object have a net positive charge This process is called charging by conduction or by contact Two objects end up with same sign of charge

Induced charge; the electroscope

Scenario 2: positively charged object is brought close to a neutral rod, but does not touch it
Free electrons does not leave the rod, but move within the metal towards the external positive charge, leaving positive charge at the opposite end of the rod Charge is said to have induced at two ends of rod No net charge has created in the rod Charges have been separated If the metal is broken in to two, two charged objects will be created, one charged (+)vely and other (-)vely

Induced charge; the electroscope

Scenario 3:
First connect the metal object with a conducting wire to the ground Object is grounded or earthed Earth is so large, so it can,
Conduct, accept or give up electrons Acts like a reservoir of charge

Now metal is positively charged, if wire is cut, object will have positive induced charge on it What will happen if we cut the wire after we move away the negatively charged object?

Induced charge; the electroscope

Charge separation can also be done in non conductors
Almost no electrons can move freely within the non conductor They can move slightly within their own atoms and molecules Non conductor as a whole is attracted to the external positive charge

The electroscope
A device that can be used for detecting charge
Two movable metal leaves, often made of gold Connected to outside metal knob by a conductor Insulated casing Identifying the sign of the charge
First charge with a known sign by conduction Now modern electrometers are used http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrometer

The electroscope

Coulombs Law
Electric charge exerts a force of attraction or repulsion on other electric charges
What factors affect the magnitude of this force French physicist Charles Coulomb investigated electric forces using torsion balance

Coulombs Law

k = proportionality constant Gives the magnitude of the electric force that either object exerts on the other Direction of the electric force is always along the line joining the two objects
Equal signs repel each other Opposite signs attract each other

Coulombs Law
SI unit: coulomb (C) k = 8.988 * 109 Nm2/C2 or k 9.0 * 109 Nm2/C2 1 C = amount of charge which, if placed on each of two point objects that are 1 m apart, will result in each object exerting a force of 9 * 109 N on the other

Coulombs Law
Charge on one electron is the smallest charge found in nature, called e (elementary charge) e = 1.602 * 10-19 C Charge on electron is -e, charge on proton is +e Electric charge is quantized (existing only on discrete amounts: 1e, 2e, 3e, etc)

Coulombs Law

o = permittivity of free space These equations apply to objects whose size is much smaller than the distance between them
Ideally precise for point charges (spatial size negligible compared to other distances) r is basically the distance between their centers

Here we talk only about stationary charges (electrostatics) When using the Coulombs law determine the direction of force based on force is attractive or repulsive

Coulombs Law
Gives the force on a charge due to only one other charge If several charges are present? The net force on any one of them will be the vector sum of the forces on that charge due to each of the others (principle of superposition)

Solving problems involving coulombs law and vectors

Electric force between charged particles at rest (electrostatic force or Coulomb force) is a vector Vector addition methods
Tail-to-tip method Parallelogram method Adding components method (precise and easy to use)

Common practices
F31 : Force exerted on particle 3 by particle 1 Draw diagram, showing all the forces acting on objects First find the magnitude using the equation Then find the direction by comparing charges

Solving problems involving coulombs law and vectors

The electric field

Many forces referred to as contact forces
Pushing or pulling a cart Tennis racket hitting a tennis ball

Gravitational and electric force acts at a distance, how can we explain this?
By using the idea of a field by Michael Faraday Electric field extends outward from every charge and permeates all of space

The electric field

To investigate the electric field we will use a small positive test charge
so small that the force it exerts does not significantly alter the distribution of those other charges that create the field

The electric field

Electric field is defined in terms of the force on such a positive test charge Electric field E at any point in the space = the force F exerted on a tiny positive test charge placed at that point divided by the magnitude of the test charge q, E is a vector,
Direction is direction of the force Magnitude is the force per unit charge SI unit: Newtons per Coulomb (N/C)

The electric field

E is independent of the test charge q Above equations are referred to as electric field form of Coulombs law If electric field (E) is given at a point, force on a charge can be calculated,
Valid even if q is not small If q is positive F and E are in same direction If q is negative F and E are in opposite directions

The electric field

Electric field E due to a,
Positive charge, points away from the charge Negative charge, points towards that charge

Electric field due to more than one charge, the individual fields due to each charge are added vectorially (superposition principle)

Field lines
Since electric field is vector, sometimes refer as a vector field Drawing field using vector lines (magnitude and direction) at different points is confusing Solution is field lines

Field lines
To visualize the electric field we draw series of lines electric field lines (lines of force) indicate the direction of the force due to the given field on a positive test charge
Point outward from a single isolated positive charge Point inward towards a single isolated negative charge Starting from positive and ending at negative Number of lines starting on a positive charge or ending on a negative charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge The closer together the lines are, the stronger the electric field in that region Number of lines crossing unit area perpendicular to E is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field

Field lines

Properties of Field lines

1. Electric field lines indicate the direction of the electric field; the field points in the direction tangent to the field line at any point 2. The lines are drawn so that the magnitude of the electric field, E, is proportional to the number of lines crossing unit area perpendicular to the lines. The closer together the lines, the stronger the field 3. Electric field lines start on positive charges and end on negative charges; and the number of starting or ending is proportional to the magnitude of the charge Note that field lines never cross (cannot have two directions at the same point)

Electric fields and conductors

Electric field inside a conductor is zero in the static situation
Any net charge on a conductor distributes itself on the surface

Electric fields and conductors

Electric field is always perpendicular to the surface outside of a conductor

Gausss Law
Important relation in electricity Developed by Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) Relates electric charge and electric field More general version of Coulombs law Electric flux = electric field passing through a given area Flux through an area is proportional to the number of lines passing thought that area

Gausss Law
Involves total flux through a closed surface

Sum is over any closed surface Qenc : net charge enclosed within the surface

Gausss Law
Electric field is zero inside a empty sphere or a conductor Electric field between two parallel plates

Photocopy machines and computer printers

Photocopy machines and laser printers Photocopier
Lenses and mirrors focus image of the original onto drum Drum is good conductor (Al), coated with selenium
has photoconductivity property Electrical non conductor in dark, conductor at light

Steps
Place positive charge on selenium later Image is projected to drum, at lighter areas selenium becomes conductive and neutralize Toner with negative charge is brushed on to drum Presses drum against a paper Paper is heated to fix toner particles

In a color copier this is repeated for each color

Photocopy machines and computer printers

Laser printer
Instead of hardcopy a softcopy is used as the input Use a laser beam

Inkjet printer
Use a nozzle to spray tiny droplets of ink

Summary
Electrostatics, electric current and electric force, Kirchhoff's laws and linear circuits, Electric charge, Coulomb's law, Electric fields, field lines and forces, Electric dipoles, Electric flux, Gauss's law.
ICT 1102 - Electromagnetism and Optics I 44

January 2010