Tanaman Industri

( Industry Crops )
AGR 2602
Pengenalan kepada tanaman-tanaman
meliputi :
 Sifat-sifat botani
 Ekologi dan pengaruh sekitaran
 Pembiakan dan pengeluaran benih
 Kepentingan ekonomi 

hevea brasilliensis 1
The Rubber Tree
Division : Magnoliophyta
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Genus : Hevea
Species : Hevea brasillensis

Common Names: Rubbertree, jebe, arbre de para,

parakautschukbaum, cauchotero de pará, seringueira,
seringueira-branca, arbol del caucho, siringa

Synonyms: Siphonia brasiliensis Willd. ex A. Juss.

Part Used: Leaves, bark, latex

There are 11 species of Hevea.

hevea brasilliensis 2
History

Hevea brasiliensis was first found in

the Amazon basin South America.
It occurs in
 Bolivia - Beni
 Brazil - Amapa, Amazonas, Mato
Grosso, Para;
 Columbia - Amozonas;
 Peru - Huanuco, Loreto, Madre de
Dios, Pasco, San Martin

hevea brasilliensis 3
hevea brasilliensis 4
European contact with rubber began when
Christopher Columbus observed waterproof
containers and watched ball games in Haiti. He
returned to Europe with rubber balls (1493).
In 1615, a book was published in which told
that the natives obtained gum from trees.
Rubber was used for waterproofing of clothing,
shoes, and kitchen items.
In 1734, the French astronomer de la
Condamine observed how natives collected and
condensed the "juice" (latex) from the bark of
a tree to produce rubber.
The name "rubber" was presumably coined in
1770 by the famous chemist Joseph Priestley
(discoverer of oxygen), who realized that the
substance could erase (rub out) pencil marks.

hevea brasilliensis 5
In 1736, de la Condamine called this product
caoutchouc. The report on rubber making and the
samples stirred great publicity in France and the
rest of Europe, creating an immediate demand for
rubber.
The first innovative use of rubber was in 1823 by
an English inventor (Hancock) and a Scottish
chemist (Macintosh), who were able to dissolve
crude rubber and then laminate a thin layer of
rubber to a fabric, and thereby manufacture the
first waterproof (the raincoat). At the same time,
"gumshoes" were imported to New England as
footwear for seafarers;
In 1839, Goodyear revolutionized the rubber
industry by inventing vulcanization, which
eliminated the disagreeable physical properties of
rubber by combining natural rubber with sulfur and
lead through a heat curing process.
hevea brasilliensis 6
The rubber industry got its biggest business boost
by the development of tires, for bicycles and
especially for automobiles. Dunlop marketed the
pneumatic tire in 1888, and the automobile was
invented in 1895.
In 1876, Henry A. Wickham, an English
adventurer, succeeded in delivering 70,000 seeds
of Hevea to the Kew Gardens London for
propagation, of which 2397 seeds germinated.
In 1877, 22 seedlings were sent from Ceylon to
Botanic Gardens, Singapore, where they grew
strongly, and the technique of tapping was
developed. From there Hevea plants were
introduced to Malaysia, Sumatra, and West Java
(only two plants).

hevea brasilliensis 7
 By 1900, most of the
techniques and agricultural
practices required to
establish large plantations
had been developed.
 One key technique was

bud grafting. This is

essentially a cloning
technique which ensures
that genetically identical
trees can be produced in
unlimited numbers.

hevea brasilliensis 8
The plant
Euphorbiaceae family are mostly monoecious
herbs, shrubs, and trees, sometimes succulent
and cactus-like, and comprise one of the
largest families of plants with about 300
genera and 7,500 species
The tree can reach a height of over 30m; older
trees yield more latex. The latex occurs in
latex vessels in the bark, mostly outside the
phloem.
These vessel spiral up the tree in a right
handed spiral which forms an angle of about
30 degrees with the horizontal.

hevea brasilliensis 9
hevea brasilliensis 10
hevea brasilliensis 11
Latex, as found in nature, is the milky sap of
many plants that coagulates on exposure to
air. It is a complex emulsion in which proteins,
alkaloids, starches, sugars, oil, tannins, resins
and gump are found.
Stems smooth and straight; trunk unbranched
up a long way and then with much-branched
leafy canopy; bark grayish.
Taproot well-developed
Leaves - alternate, trifoliolate, stipulate,
 petioles 7.5–10 cm long
 leaflets obovate, apically acuminate, entire, basally
acute, penninerved, 10–15 cm long, 3–6 cm broad,
elliptic-lanceolate in outline

hevea brasilliensis 12
hevea brasilliensis 13
Flowers
Flowers numerous, monoecious, creamy, yellow
or green, in axillary pubescent panicles, sweet-
scented, small;
 female flowers apical, the more numerous

 male flowers lateral in the inflorescence;

 petals absent;

Hevea may undergo two flowerings

 flowering occurs in February to April and (a

lesser flowering) in September and October

with winterings in January and February,

hevea brasilliensis 14
hevea brasilliensis 15
The inflorescence is a panicle of separate
staminate and pistillate flowers borne in the
axils of basal leaves of new shoots that grow
out after wintering.
Pistillate flowers are terminal to the central
stem and other major branches of the
inflorescence.
Staminate flowers have two rings of five
stamens each borne on a stalk.
Pistillate flowers have a compound ovary with
three locules topped by three sticky, sessile
stigmas.
Pistillate flowers then open for a period of
three to five days after which the rest of the
staminate flowers open.

hevea brasilliensis 16
Pollination is primarily through insects,
specifically midges and thrips. Wind appears to
play no role.
Fertilization occurs within 24 hours after
pollination. Unfertilized pistillate flowers
quickly wither and die
Hand-pollination for breeding purposes
Fruit a 3-lobed, 3-seeded ellipsoidal capsule,
each carpel with 1 seed; seeds ellipsoidal,
variable in size, 2.5–3 cm long, mottled
brown, lustrous, weighing 2–4 g each.

hevea brasilliensis 17
The Ecology

Kesesuaian dari Subtropical Wet (tanpa frost)

hingga Tropical Dry ke kawasan hutan hujan
tropika antara 15°N dan 10°S latitude, dengan
cuaca panas lembab dan suhu antara 23° dan
35°C. pH 4.3 ke 8.0
Tahan tetapi tidak subur di kawasan cuaca
ketara kering dan suhu berubah-ubah dan
juga tahan air (waterlogging) dan pH antara
(4–8) tetapi lebih sesuai dalam acid soils.
Kapur adalah tidak sesuai, pengairan yang
buruk atau peaty soils perlu dielakkan.

hevea brasilliensis 18
Hidup subur pada kawasan loamy soil yang
baik pengairan, dilindungi tumbuhan asli atau
penutup bumi kekacang dan melindungi dari
hakisan.
Getah tahan penyakit, kemarau, pH tinggi,
serangga (insects), laterite, low pH, curam
(slopes), virus, dan waterlogging.
Getah adalah tanaman Asian, di mana Asia
menghasilkan 92% daripada getah asli dunia
di Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, South
Vietnam

hevea brasilliensis 19
Cultivation

Dibiakan – melalui biji benih atau vegetatif

melalui buddings atau kombinasi keduanya.
Buah terbuka (meletup) bila masak dan bijinya
tersebar sejauh 33 m dari pokok.
Biji dikumpul dan disemai segar sebelum hilang
kesegaran (tahan 7–10 hari), dan mecapai 4–6
minggu, jika dimasukan dalam serbuk arang
atau habuk kayu dengan kelembapan 15–20%
dalam kotak khas.
Biji cambah dalam 1–3 minggu, bergantung
kesesuaian suhu dan kesegaran/ kebernasan
benih.
Anak untuk dibuat cantuman diambil dari anak
benih yang ditanam dengan biji.
hevea brasilliensis 20
Lebih kurang 100,000 pokok/ha untuk
plot semaian, dimana 60,000 ke 70,000
akan mencapai saiz piawai dalam masa
10–15 bulan.
Pokok dicabut dan batang dipotong 45–
60 cm, akar tunjang 45–70 cm, dan
akar sisi 10 cm.
Penanaman diladang dilakukan musim
monsun.
Penanaman dibuat ikut kontur tanah
semulajadi dan pokok terselamat dari
angin kencang.

hevea brasilliensis 21
Penutup bumi ditanam bersebelahan
pokok getah untuk menghalang air
hujan pada tanah curam dan menolong
menyuburkan tanah melalui pengikatan
nitrogen.
Standard horticultural techniques,
seperti nursery rootstocks (tunggul)
dan grafting (mencantum) diatasnya,
hand pollination, dan vegetatif
propagation (cloning) untuk hasilkan
pokok seragam juga diamalkan.
Hujan tahunan sekitar 2,500 millimetres
(100 inches) adalah diperlukan.

hevea brasilliensis 22
Southeast Asia adalah sesuai untuk tanaman
getah dan juga sebahagian South Asia dan
West Africa.
Penanaman Hevea di Brazil, tempat asalnya,
telah hampir dimusnahkan oleh blight diawal
abad ke 20.

hevea brasilliensis 23
Morfologi
Akar
 Akar tunjang : membenam jauh dalam
tanah terhenti bila jumpa air –menyalur air
melalui proses osmosis
 Akar jalur besar: tumbuh bhg tepi akar
tunjang (lebih kecil) – menguat kedudukan
pokok dan menyedut air (tekanan tugor)
 Akar sisi : tumbuh ditepi akar jalur besar –
menguat cengkaman dan menyalur air
(tekanan tugor dan osmosis)
 Akar rerambut : akar terkecil dan aktif,
tumbuh tepi akar sisi – hisap air dan
makanan kpd pokok.

hevea brasilliensis 24
Batang
 Ada empulur (medula): yg dilindungi tisu
keras (kayu/xilem)
 Kulit gubal (kulit hidup): menebal hala
kekayu, jadi kayu; menebal kekulit, jadi kulit
saluran susu
 Kulit saluran susu : ada banyak saluran susu
dengan kedudukan melingkar dari bawah
kiri keatas kanan 3.70
 Kulit sel batu : menutup kulit saluran susu,
keras dan melindungi saluran susu
 Kulit hijau : diatas kulit sel batu dan
menstabil kulit dibawahnya (supaya
bertenaga) kerana ada klorofil

hevea brasilliensis 25
 Kulit gabus : disebelah luar; sebagai dinding
pelindung
 Mata tunas (pada batang atau ranting) :
dipanggil tunas sisik dan tunas ketiak. Tak
keluar tunas dipanggil tunas pendam,
dahan hasil drp tunas ketiak dan tunas sisik
adalah tunas ketiak selepas gagang
daunnya luruh
 Daun hidup dihujung gagang dan gagang
(petiol) gugur dimusim panas; elak pokok
kekurangan makanan dan air; stahun sekali.

hevea brasilliensis 26
Bunga
 Bunga berjambak dihujung ranting berdaun
 Tiap jambak bercabang (paksi) dan ada
bunga jantan dan betina
 Bunga betina : dihujung paksi saja, bunga
jantan diseluruh bhg jambak
 Bunga jantan > bunga betina
 Kedua bunga : ada lima keping ranggi
warna kuning bentuk loceng- bunga betina
lebih besar.
 Bunga getah : bau menarik, debunga dan
stigma melekit
 Pendebungaan : biasanya oleh serangga
 Gagal pendebungaan : bunga betina layu,
gugur dalam masa 2 minggu
 Berjaya : ovarihevea
menjadi buah dan gugur 27
brasilliensis
dalam masa 4-5 bulan
Biji
 Ada 3-5 biji dalam satu buah
 Embrio hasil gabungan sel jantan dan
betina
 Menurunkan sifat kedua-dua bunga
itu
 Embrio membesar menjadi pokok

hevea brasilliensis 28
Kulit –terbahagi 3
 Kulit lembut (flom) – barisan sel-sel
menengah, dinding berlubang2 (salur latex)
 Kulit keras – ada tisu lembut dan
bergumpal2 sel, juga ada salur latex (tak
teratur)
 Kulit gabus – penyatuan feloderm dan
felogen menjadi kulit sel keras (dalam) dan
gabus (luar)
 Pokok klon : kulit gabus tebal, (30% drp
ketebalan kulit), pokok cantum : 10%

hevea brasilliensis 29
Semaian
Membiak benih getah secara;
 Seksual

 Pendebungaan
 Semulajadi
 Tampang

 Keratan
 Tot
 Lenturan
 Cantuman sanding
hevea brasilliensis 30
 Cantuman biji
 Tisu didik
 Cantuman tunas
 Tunas perang
 Tunas hijau

 Tunas hijau muda

hevea brasilliensis 31
Pendebungaan –proses di mana
debunga dari jantan dibawa ke stigma
bunga betina
 Melalui angin/ serangga
 Sifat berbeza antaranya
 Sesuai untuk mendapatkan biji untuk pokok stok
(bijinya banyak)
 Pendebungaan tangan
 Dibuat 5-8 minggu sebelum bunga kembang
 Cepudebunga drp debunga klon dikehendaki
didebungakan kepada stigma bunga betina
 Akan berputik 5-10 hari lepas pendebungaan
 Bulan ke 4 disalut dengan jala –supaya tidak
terbang
 Kejayaan : 5-15% , seorang pekerja mampu
membuat 120 kuntum sehari
hevea brasilliensis 32
Penyediaan biji benih
cambah
Biji benih segar dari klon terpilih
(sebagai pokok penanti);
 PB5/51, RRIM623, RRIM 712, RRIM 901, PB
217, PB 235 dan GT 1
Diambil dari kaw. ditetapkan (pungutan
pertama dibuang) ambil pungutan
seterusnya.
 Biji segar berkilat (berat 220 biji= 1kg)
 Musim gugur Ogos – Sept dan Feb. – Mac
 Hendak simpan lama bungkus dengan
belapik abuk kayu 20% kelembapan atau
abuk arang 20% kelambapan
hevea brasilliensis 33
Batas cambah
Batas dibuat drp tanah gembur, pasir
sungai atau abuk kayu (tiada kimia)
 Saiz 15cm tinggi x 100 cm lebar
 1 meter prs = 1000 biji
 3 jenis batas
 Kekal (dibuat dg konkrit)
 Separuh kekal (kotak papan)
 Sementara (naikan tanah)
 Bina para 100-150 cm tinggi, atap daun kelapa
30% telus cahaya.
 Biji disusun rapat2 (selapis) dgn dada kebawah
(mudah akar ulung keluar) dan ditimbus
separuh biji.
hevea brasilliensis 34
Mengubah
Siram batas cambah
Cabut benih (hari ke 14 - 21) bila terbit
akar ulung (2.5 cm), guna kayu kecil.
Semai dlm polibeg (secepat mungkin)
 Akar ulung kebawah (saiz polibeg 15cm x
33 cm)
 Guna 2 biji/ polibeg (jarak 5 cm)
 Lebihkan 15 – 20% semaian dari keperluan
Biarkan benih subur saja (buat
penakaian yang taksubur) dibulan
pertama dlm polibeg
hevea brasilliensis 35
Baja bila berumur 3-5 bln
 baja lepas ansur – ‘kokei nugget’ 6gm ( 2
minggu lepas cambah)
 baja foliar – ‘Byfolan’ dicampur racun kulat
 Baja foliar – ‘Urea’ pada pokok kekuningan
daun
Kawalan perosak (tikus & siput) dgn
umpan dan serangga dgn Rogor 40,
Thiodan35 dll.
Kawalan penyakit
 Odium – sulfur,
 Collectotrichum – Daconil, Antarcol
Siram 2x sehari (secara
hevea brasilliensis springkler) 36
Cantuman
Faedah
 Hasil latex lebih tinggi
 Hasil seragam
 Kurang kerja dan belanja menanam
dan menjaga
 Mudah dikenali
 Dapat memilih klon yang sesuai
dengan tanah dan kawasan

hevea brasilliensis 37
Jenis cantuman
 Cantuman muda/ hijau
 Rekaan H.R Hurov (Sabah 1958, Malaya
Tinley 1960)
 Mata tunas : dari ‘bush nursery’ (umur 5-
6 minggu) 1 kaki dgn 3-4 mata tunas
 Pokok penanti : berumur > 6 bulan
(hijau) dan 2½ bln (muda)
 Musim sesuai : sepanjang musim
 Dicantasan lepas 3-4 minggu (20-25cm
dari tapak cantuman.
 Buang tunas liar.

hevea brasilliensis 38
 Cantuman perang (biasa)
 Rekaan Van Helten (Sumatra 1917),
Milsum (Malaya 1919/20) dan
diperbaiki Mann (1926)
 Mata tunas : 12-18 bln, kulit perang
2 ela (1.8m) dgn 20-30 mata tunas.
 Pokok penanti : berumur 10-18 bln
(3 in lilitan dari 4 in paras tanah)
 Musim sesuai : Mac –April dan Ogs –
Jan (waktu pagi), elak musim
kemarau
hevea brasilliensis 39
Mengubah
Setelah mencapai 2-3 tingkat daun
(daun hujung keras sepenuhnya)
Untuk benih lanjutan (5-6 pusaran
daun)
 Ubah kedalam polibeg 25cm x 51cm (11 kg
tanah)
Mengubah benih lanjutan (tanpa
polibeg)
 10 hari sebelum ubah – pangkas batang 275
cm dari tanah (rawat luka)
 Cabut secara manual atau ‘back-hoe’
 Gunting akar sekeliling akar tunjang 60 cm,
buang akar tunjang bercabang. (TC)
hevea brasilliensis 40
The disease
About 90 species of fungi are known to attack
Hevea trees, the most prevalent ones being are
 Colletotrichum heveae (leaf spot),

 Fomes lamaensis (brown root rot),

 Gloeosporium heveae (die-back),

 Oidium heveae (powdery mildew),

 Pellicularis salmonicolor (pink disease),

 Phytophthora palmivora (causing fruit rot,

leaf-fall, black thread, and die-back),

 Polystichus occidentalis and P. personii (white

spongy rot),
 Sphaerella heveae (rim bright),

 Sphaerostilbe repens (red rot) and

 Ustulina maxima (charcoal rot).

hevea brasilliensis 41
It is also attacked by Bacterium albilineans, and
parasitized by Loranthus spp.
Nematodes isolated from Hevea brasiliensis
include: Helicotylenchus cavenessi, H.dihystera,
H. erythrinae, Meloidogyne incognita acrita,
M.javanica, Pratylenchus coffeae, P. brachyurus.
Insect pests include the following species:
 Scale insects (Aspidiotus cyanophylli and

Parasaissetia nigra).
 White ants cause serious damage to trees at

all ages.
 Snails can be serious pests to young trees.

 Various animals can damage the trunks

hevea brasilliensis 42
Three types of root disease, classified as -
 white,

 red, and

 brown,

are controlled by cutting away diseased tissue

and applying prophylactic coatings.
Panel diseases, classified as –
 black stripe,

 moldy rot, and

 panel necrosis,

are minimized by spraying or coating specific

fungicides.

hevea brasilliensis 43
Stem disease – consisting of
 pink disease,

 stem canker, and

 dieback

is reduced by brushing on specific

fungicides.
Leaf disease - consisting of abnormal leaf fall,
 Gloeosporium leaf disease,

 powdery mildew, and

 bird's eye spot,

is controlled by a variety of sprays,

including copper oxychloride, sulfur dust,
and others applied by spray or dusting
techniques.
hevea brasilliensis 44
Harvesting

Source of Hevea or Para Rubber, obtained by

tapping the trunks of the trees.
Tapping begins when trees are 5–8 years old,
depending on the area, and increases every
year until a maximum at about 20 years, then
yield sustained for 40–50 years or more.
Trees are tapped early in morning when flow of
latex is highest; flow decreases with
temperature and usually ceases in about 3
hours.
Tapping stands of 250–300 trees per hectare
are recommended, obtained by thinning
budwood densities of 375 to 450 or seedling
densities of 500 to 600.
hevea brasilliensis 45
hevea brasilliensis 46
The cut must be neither too deep, nor too
thick. Either will reduce the productive life of
the tree. This starts the latex flowing, and the
tapper leaves leaves a little cup underneath
the cut.
Tapping consists of removal by excision of a
thin cut of bark about 1 mm deep at regular
intervals, thus opening the latex vessels in the
bark, which are arranged in concentric
cylinders and run in counter-clockwise spirals
up the trunk.
The cuts run half-way around the trunk, but
may encircle the tree.

hevea brasilliensis 47
Special knives are used to cut the proper
depth and angle. Latex is collected through a
small spout fixed in the bark in cups placed at
end of cut, large enough to collect one-day's
flow.
An average tapper can tap 200–300 trees in 3
hours. Then the tapper empties the cups into
large pails or buckets, sometimes adding a few
drops of dilute ammonium solution to prevent
coagulation.

hevea brasilliensis 48
Yields and Economics
Average prewar yields for unselected trees was
about 300–450 kg latex/ha; and 700–2,000 kg
latex/ha for improved plantings. Average
number of tappings per year is 120–140 in
India, 160 in Malaysia.
With trees cultivated at a density of 375 to 450
per hectare (150 to 200 per acre),
approximately from hybrid verity rubber 3,500
to 4,500 kilograms of rubber can be produced
per hectare per year
Rubber yield can be increased by treating the
bark below the tap with yield-stimulating
mixtures containing plant hormones and
selective weed-killers with hormone properties,

hevea brasilliensis 49
hevea brasilliensis 50
The latex coagulates with the aid of
acetic acid, formic acid.
Three major Asian producers
 Malaysia,
 Indonesia, and

 Thailand

account for 80 percent of the world total.

Two other Asian producers
 Sri Lanka and India and
 two African producers - Liberia and Nigeria

account together for another 12 percent of the

world total.

hevea brasilliensis 51
Hevea is prone to many diseases
 South American Leaf Blight caused by Michocyclus
ulei. This disease is native to the Amazon and
continues to limit the growth of the rubber industry
in Brazil.

hevea brasilliensis 52
hevea brasilliensis 53
Function and usage
Cured rubber used for all types of rubber
products.
Seeds are source of Para Rubber seed oil,
recommended for manufacture of soap. (seeds
can be eaten as a famine food after
processing.
Kernels (50–60% of the seed) contain 40–
50% of a semi-drying pale yellow oil, used in
soap making, paints, varnishes, and is
effective against houseflies and lice.
Car tires have 12.5-28% natural rubber
(higher in radial tires), truck and bus tires 50-
75%, and aircraft tires 90-100%, whereas soft
bicycle tires are synthetic only.

hevea brasilliensis 54
hevea brasilliensis 55
 NR

Latex
Cuplump

Latex concentrate Convensional TSR Special Rubber

(HA, LA) (RSS,SMR (SMR L, (ENR, LNR)
ADS, CV) DPNR)
NR=natural rubber
SMR=standard Malaysian Rubber
TSR=technically specified R TSR Secialty TSR
ENR=Epoxidised Natural Rubber (SMR 10 & 20)
(SMR 10&20Natural
DPNR =Deproteinised CV Rubber
LNR=Liquid Natural Rubber SMR
GP smoked sheets
RSS= ribbed house
grades)
hevea brasilliensis 56
Area to be planted to rubber trees is cleared,
then lined and marked for roads and drainage.
Planting pits are dug,
 75 x 75 x 75 cm, or
 90 x 90 x 90 cm, and
 filled with surface soil and manure.
 Seedlings are raised in nurseries or directly in the
field.

hevea brasilliensis 57