Architecture of Neural Networks

Prepared by, T.W. Koh

27-12-2004

Architecture of Neural Networks

Feed-forward Networks

Allows signals to travel one way only There is no feedback (loops) The output of any layer does not affect the same layer Straight forward networks that associate inputs with outputs Referred to as bottom-up or top-down

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Feedback networks

Can have signals traveling in both directions by introducing loops in the networks Very powerful but extremely complicated Dynamic, their state change continuously until they reach an equilibrium point. They remain at the equilibrium point until the input changes and a new equilibrium need to be found.
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Architecture of Neural Networks

Network layers

The commonest type of artificial neural network consists of three group/ layer of units: input, hidden and output.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Input activity: represents the raw information that fed into the network. Hidden activity: determined by the activities of input units and the weights on the connections. Output behavior: depends on the activity of the hidden units and the weights between the hidden and output units.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

The hidden units of the simple network are free to construct their own representations of the input. The weight between the input and hidden units determine when each hidden unit is active, and so by modifying these weights, a hidden unit can choose what it represents.

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Single-layer architectures

All units are connected to one another Constitutes the most general case More computational power Numbered by layer, instead of following a global numbering

Multi-layer architectures

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Perceptrons

Coined by Frank Rosenblatt in the 60s Turns out to be an MCP model ( neuron with weighted inputs) with some additional, fixed, preprocessing. Units labeled A1, A2 Aj Ap are called association units and their task is to extract specific, localized featured from input images. It mimic the basic idea behind the mammalian visual system.
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Architecture of Neural Networks

The perceptron

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Architecture of Neural Networks

The Learning Process

Two general paradigms:

Associative Mapping

Auto-association Hetero-association Nearest-neighbor recall Interpolative recall

Regularity Detection

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Associative Mapping

The network learns to produce a particular pattern on the set of input units whenever another particular pattern is applied on the set of input units.

It can broken down into two mechanisms:

Auto-association Hetero-association

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Auto-Association

An input pattern is associated with itself and the states of input and output units coincide. This is used to provide pattern completition, i.e. to produce a pattern whenever a portion of it or a distorted pattern is presented. In the second case, the network actually stores pairs of patterns building an association between two sets of patterns.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Hetero-Association

It is related to two recall mechanisms: Nearest-neighbor recall

The output pattern produced corresponds to the input pattern stored, which is closest to the pattern presented. The output pattern is a similarity dependent interpolation of the patterns stored corresponding to the pattern presented.

Interpolative recall

Yet another paradigm, which is a variant associative mapping is classification, i.e. when there is a fixed set of categories into which the input patterns are to be classified.
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Architecture of Neural Networks

Regularity detection

In which units learns to respond to particular properties of the input patterns. Whereas in associative mapping the network stores the relationships among patterns, in regularity detection the response of each unit has a particular meaning. This type of learning mechanism is essential for feature discovery and knowledge representation.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Every neural network posses knowledge which is contained in the values of the connections weights. Modifying the knowledge stored in the network as a function of experience implies a learning rule for changing the values of the weights.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Information is stored in the weight matrix W of neural network. Learning is the determination of the weights.
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Architecture of Neural Networks

Following is the way learning is performed, we can distinguish two major categories of neural networks:

Fixed networks: The weights can not be changed, i.e. dW/dt=0. In such networks, the weights are fixed a priori according to the problem to solve. Adaptive networks: Which are able to change their weights, i.e. dW/dt !=0.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

All learning methods used for adaptive neural networks can be classified into two major categories:

Supervised learning Unsupervised learning

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Supervised Learning

Incorporates an external teacher, so that each output unit is told what its desired response to input signals ought to be. Global information may be required for learning process. The supervised learning include error correction learning, reinforcement learning and stochastic learning.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

An important issue concerning supervised learning is the problem of error convergence, i.e. the minimization of error between the desired and computed unit values. The aim is to determine a set of weights which minimizes the error. Least mean square (LMS) convergence, the wellknown method. Learning is performed off-line.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Unsupervised Learning

Uses no external teacher. It is based upon only local information. It self-organizes data presented to the network and detects their emergent collective properties. Hebbian Learning and Competitive Learning Learning is performed online.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Transfer Function

The behavior of ANN depends on both the weights and the input-output function (transfer function) that is specified for the units. This falls into three categories:

Linear (or ramp) Threshold sigmoid

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Architecture of Neural Networks

Linear units: the output activity is proportional to the total weighted output. Threshold units: the output is set at one of two level, depending on whether the total input is greater than or less than some threshold value. Sigmoid units: the output varies continuously but not linearly as the input changes. It bear a greater resemblance to real neurons than do linear or threshold units.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

To make neural network that performs some specific task, we must choose how the units are connected to one another, and we must set the weights on the connections appropriately.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

The connections determine whether it is possible for one unit to influence another. The weights specify the strength of influence.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

We can teach a three-layer network to perform a particular task by using the following procedure:
1.

2.

3.

We present the network with training examples, which consists of a pattern of activities for the input units together with the desired pattern of activities for the output units We determine how closely the actual output of the network matches the desired output We change the weight of each connection so that the network produces a better approximation of the desired output.
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Architecture of Neural Networks

The Back-Propagation Algorithm

In order to train a neural network to perform some task, we must adjust the weights of each unit in such a way that the error between the desired output and the actual output is reduced. This process requires that the neural network computes the error derivative of the weights (EW). It must calculate how the error changes as each weight is increased or decreased slightly.
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Architecture of Neural Networks

It is easiest to understand if all the units in the network are linear. The algorithm computes each EW by first computing the EA, the rate at which the error changes as the activity level of a unit is changed. For output units, the EA is simply the difference between the actual and the desired output. To compute the EA for a hidden unit in the layer just before the output layer, we first identify all the weights between that hidden unit and the output units to which it is connected.
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Architecture of Neural Networks

We then multiply those weights by the EAs of those output units and add the products. This sum equals the EA for the chosen hidden unit. After calculating all the EAs in the hidden layer just before the output layer, we can compute in like fashion the EAs for other layers, moving from layer to layer in a direction opposite to the way activities propagate through the network.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

This is what gives back propagation its name. Once the EA has been computed for a unit, it is straight forward to compute the EW for each incoming connection of the unit. The EW is the product of the EA and the activity through the incoming connection.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

For non-linear units, the back-propagation algorithm includes an extra step. Before backpropagating, the EA must be converted into the EI, the rate at which the error changes as the total input received by a unit is changed.

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Architecture of Neural Networks

References

Report: www.doc.ic.ac.uk/Journal vol4/

Source: Narauker Dulay, Imperial College, London Authors: Christos Stergiou and Dimitrios Siganos

Neural Network: a comprehensive foundation, 2nd edition, Simon Haykin

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