SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES, POWER DIVICES, & SENSORS

Classification of materials: Conductors: Offer very little resistance to the flow of current through it, e.g. silver, copper, aluminium etc. Insulators: Do not conduct current under ordinary temperatures. Resistance offered by an insulator is large, e.g.wood, glass, paper mica, plastic etc. Semiconductors: Materials like silicon, germanium etc exhibit the properties of both conductor and insulator. At low temperatures, they behave like perfect insulators but at higher temperatures, they behave like good conductors.

Important properties of semiconductors: Conductivity lies in between the conductivities of conductors and insulators. Conductivity with temperature. Hence has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. conductivity increases when suitable metallic impurity is added to it. This is the most distinguishing feature of a semiconductor. The most used semiconductors materials are silicon and germanium.

neutra

Semiconductor Theory: Atoms of a Matter consists of electrons, protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively charged while the neutrons are electrically neutral. Since the protons and electrons are equal the atoms are neutral Electrons move in orbits around the nucleus. Outermost orbit can have maximum of 8 electrons Outermost orbit is called valence orbit and the electrons in this orbit is called valence electrons. If an electron is detached from the orbit it becomes a free electron.

Free electrons and holes: The vacancy for an electron is created when the valence electron is set free from the valence band. This is termed as hole. A hole represents a missing electron. Holes can be looked upon as positive charges, and just like free electrons, they also contribute to current flow, in a semiconductor. Intrinsic and extrinsic Semiconductors: Semiconductor, in its pure form is termed as intrinsic semiconductor. Addition of a small quantity of metallic impurity to the semiconductor material increases conductivity. This process is called doping and then it is called extrinsic semiconductor.

n-type Semiconductor: Pentavalent impurity like arsenic, antimony or phosphorus is added to pure germanium or silicon. With this one free electron is available for conduction p-type semiconductor: Trivalent impurity like gallium or Indium or aluminium is added to pure germanium or silicon.

Drift: When voltage is applied across a metallic conductor or semiconductor material, the free electrons present are attracted towards the positive terminal of the voltage source. When a free electron moves along the conductor and connecting wires it collides with the atoms of the rod and wires. as a result, it drifts towards the positive terminal.

Diffusion: In a semiconductor there is concentration of one type of charge carriers, say electrons, at one end. Since like electrical charges repel, some of the electrons tend to move away under the impact of the repulsive forces. The movement of elector is termed as diffusion.

p-n junction: If a p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor are suitably joined by some mechanism the joint or contact surface so formed is termed as p-n junction. In an unbiased p-n junction, there is a barrier potential across the junction. The important features of this junction are as follows. A forward biased p-n junction readily conducts current, offering very little resistance A reverse biased p-n junction offers enormous resistance and hence it does not conduct current A p-n junction can function as rectifier. A p-n junction can act as an electronic switch

Forward biasing of p-n junction: If an external voltage is applied across a p-n junction such that it neutralized the barrier potential and causes conduction through the junction the p-n junction is said to be forward biased.

Reverse biasing of p-n junction: If an external voltage is applied across a p-n junction such that the depletion layer widens and the barrier potential increases, with result that no conduction occurs, the junction is said to be reverse biased.

 The p-n junction is called as junction diode or semiconductor diode. It conducts when it is forward biased and it blocks conduction when it is reverse biased. It can be used as rectifier for converting alternating current into direct current.

Semi conductor diode:

Full Wave Rectification: Using two diodes and centre tap transformer

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:

The advantage of this bridge rectifier is that it does not use centre-tapped transformer. Instead it makes use of four diodes.

 Zener Diodes: A reverse biased junction diode can be operated continuously in the breakdown region without any damage being caused to it. The diode is called a zener diode and has a sharp breakdown voltage. Large reverse current results due to this. A zener diode is reverse biased. Free wheeling Diode: In a circuit if the current is broken, due to the presence of inductance the stored energy will appear in the form of arc at the opening contacts of switch . To avoid this a freewheeling diode is used across the load which will provide a path for circulation of current. Junction Transistor: If two p-n junctions are joined back to back then it becomes a transistor. It is also called bipolar junction transistor abbreviated as BJT. It has three distinct regions called Emitter, Base, and Collector. There are two types pnp and npn depending on how the p-n junctions are joined.

Zener Diode

Transistor configurations:

Depending on the type of connection the transistors are called common base connection, Common emitter connection, Common collector connection.

 Transistors are used As amplifier. As oscillators.

 Field Effect Transistor(FET): Is a three terminal device. The conduction of current through the device is controlled by the electric field between the gate and the conducting channel of the device. FET is unipolar device since conduction of current through the device is entirely due to either electron motion or movement of holes

FETs are classified as follows: Junction FETs (JFET and insulated gate FETs (IGFET) or metal oxide semiconductor FETs (MOSFET)

 Principles of operation of FET: FET mainly consists of a bar of n-type semiconductor material (silicon) as channel with terminals at its two ends, marked as D and S. D is called drain and S is called source. Drain is the terminal through which the charge carriers leave the channel. Source is the terminal through which the charge carriers enter the channel. The channel has two small pieces of p-type material attached to its sides, forming p-n junctions. The terminals fixed to these p-type blocks are marked as G and they are internally connected. They together constitute the gate.

 With zero gate voltage, if a voltage is applied across D, S electrons, are attracted towards the positive terminal, and hence they drift towards the drain. This causes a current called drain current to flow in the opposite direction. The magnitude of current depends upon the applied voltage and the resistance of the channel. If a negative voltage is now applied across the gate and source terminals, the gate - channel p-n junctions become reverse biased. Depletion regions develop across the junctions. Since in practice, the channel is more lightly doped than the gate, the depletion regions penetrate deep into the channel. The depletion regions are totally devoid of charge carriers, and hence they act as insulator. The width of the conducting channel gets reduced. This increases the resistance of the channel. The drain current decreases. Thus it is seen that the magnitude of the drain current is effectively controlled by the gate bias voltage.

Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET): It is also termed as insulated gate field effect transistor IGFET). Here the gate is insulated from the channel by a thin oxide layer silicon oxide, an insulator. This results in a much larger input resistance and reduced gate leakage current. MOSFETs may be broadly classified into two categories. The enhancement mode MOSFET and the depletion mode MOSFETs. The device consists of a highly resistive p-type substrate to which are diffused two blocks of heavily doped n-type material. The surface is coated with a layer of silicon oxide, which is an insulator. Holes are punched in this layer so as to make contact with the n-type blocks and in these holes metal is deposited and the source and drain terminals are formed. In between these two metal is deposited in the form of plate, and the gate terminal is formed of this metal.

This arrangement can be viewed as two p-n junctions joined back to back through a high resistance. If the drain is made positive with respect to the source, the drain substrate junction becomes reverse biased. If the substrate is also connected to the source, there would be no voltage across the source substrate junction, and due to the drain substrate junction being reverse biased, a very small reverse leakage current results.

Circuit symbol:

Thyristors: A silicon based semi conductor device. Many other devices having characteristics similar to that identical with that of Thyristors, are triac, diac, silicon controlled switch, programmable unijunction transistor, etc. Thyristor is four layers, three junction, p-n-p-n semiconductor switching device. It has three terminals-anode, cathode and gate.

 Threaded portion is for the purpose of tightening the Thyristor to the frame or heat sink. Gate terminal is usually kept near the cathode terminal. The terminal connected to outer p region is called anode (A), the terminal connected to outer n region is called cathode and that connected to inner p region is called the gate (G). This is also called SCR-silicon controlled rectifier as silicon is used for its construction and its operation as rectifier can be controlled. Thyristor is a open switch both with forward and reverse bias. Thyristor can conduct only when it is forward biased and the gate is triggered. Once the Thyristor is on, gate loses control. It can be turned off by reducing the anode current below holding current.

Other members of the Thyristor family: Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT) Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS) Silicon Controlled switch (SCS) Light activated Thyristor Static Induction Thyristors (SITH) The Diac (Bidirectional Thyristor diode) Reverse Conducting Thyristor (RCT)

Phase controlled rectifiers:

Single phase half wave circuit

Full wave controlled converters

Choppers: Many industrial applications require variable dc voltage from dc voltage sources. From ac supply systems, variable dc output voltage can be obtained through the use of phase controlled converters or motor generator sets. The conversion of fixed dc voltage to an adjustable dc output voltage, through the use of semiconductor devices, can be carried out by the use of two types of dc to dc converters.

AC Link chopper: DC is first converted to ac by an inverter. AC is then stepped up or stepped down by a transformer It is then converted back to dc by a diode rectifier. DC Chopper: Converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output voltage.

 Inverters: Converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency. Some industrial applications of inverters are for adjustable speed ac drives, induction heating, stand by air craft power supplies, UPS for computers, hvdc transmission lines etc. The dc power input to the inverter is obtained from an existing power supply. The configuration of ac to dc converter and dc to ac inverter is called a dc link converter. The rectification is carried out by standard diodes or Thyristor converter. And the inversion is performed by the inverters.

 AC voltage controllers Cycloconverters

 SENSORS:
Device that senses fundamental physical variables, such as temperature, humidity, or pressure. Detect the presence of variable and to what degree it is present. By attaching these components directly to installation controlled, information regarding the current status of the devices can be transmitted to the controllers. Sensors may be limit or proximity switches. Sensors are signal generators, which can be used by the PLC As the PLC works electrically, the sensors must convert nonelectric signals into electric ones so that they can be understood by the input module.

 Limit switches: Normally closed contacts normally open contacts or changeover contacts. Initiator: Contacting and contactless switches which emit a 1 or 0 signal when approached by an object. Inductive generators react to metal parts capacitive generators also to other materials. Light Barriers: Contacting and contactless switches, emitting 1 or 0 signal, when an optical connection is interrupted. Temperature sensors: Contacting and contactless switches emitting a 1 or 0 signal on attaining a set temperature value.