Gravitational field

8. Gravitational Field Content 8.1 Gravitational field 8.2 Force between point masses 8.3 Field of a point mass 8.4 Field near to the surface of the Earth 8.5 Gravitational potential Learning Outcomes (a) show an understanding of the concept of a gravitational field as an example of field of force and define gravitational field strength as force per unit mass. * (b) recall and use Newton's law of gravitation in the form F = G(m1m2)/r2. (c) derive, from Newton's law of gravitation and the definition of gravitational field strength, the equation g = GM/r2 for the gravitational field strength of a point mass. * (d) recall and solve problems using the equation g = GM/r2 for the gravitational field strength of a point mass.
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 (e) show an appreciation that on the surface of the Earth g is approximately constant and is called the acceleration of free fall. (f) define potential at a point as the work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to the point. * (g) solve problems using the equation = GM/r for the potential in the field of a point mass. (h) recognise the analogy between certain qualitative and quantitative aspects of gravitational field and electric field. * (i) analyse circular orbits in inverse square law fields by relating the gravitational force to the centripetal acceleration it causes. (j) show an understanding of geostationary orbits and their application.

Forces between masses

Earths force of gravity is responsible for our weight, the force which pulls us towards the Earth Sir Isaac Newtons calculations showed that the Earths force of gravity extends into space, but weakens with distance i.e the force of gravity varies inversely with the square of the distance from the centre of the Earth Inside the Earth the relationship is linear with the distance from the centre rather than inverse square law He also concluded that Earths force of gravity is also responsible for keeping the Moon in orbit

Newtons law of gravitation

Newtons law of gravitation states that 2 point masses attract each other with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation F ~ mM/r2 or F = GmM/r2 where G is the constant of proportionality whose
value is 6.67 x 10-11 N m2kg-2 dimensions of G = Fr2/mM = (MLT-2 x L2)/M2 = (kgms-2 x m2)/ (kgkg) = m3kg-1s-2

This equation is similar to Coulombs law of force between 2 charges, with important differences:
Electric force acts on charges, whereas gravitational force acts on masses The electric force can be attractive or repulsive, depending on the signs of the interacting charges, whereas 2 masses always attract each other

It is possible to measure G in the laboratory, but as the masses are so small, it is not easy to obtain an accurate result

Gravitational field strength

The electric field strength is defined as the force per unit positive charge The gravitational field strength at a point is defined as the force per unit mass acting on a small mass placed at that point. g = F/m Nkg-1 But this is also a measure of the acceleration of free fall which means that the gravitational field strength at the Earths surface is 9.8 Nkg-1 This unit is also equivalent to the unit of acceleration ms-2

Field strength due to an isolated point charge

A spherical mass behaves as if it were a point mass at the centre of a sphere with all the mass concentrated at that point The gravitational field outside a spherical mass is a radial one similar to the idea for a point charge Since gravitational force F = GmM/r2 = mg , g = GM/r2 or Since from Newtons law the force between 2 masses m and M is F = GMm/r2 , this means that the force per unit mass or gravitational field strength g is,
g = F/m = GM/r2

Since we know the field strength due to the Earth at the surface of the Earth is 9.8 Nkg-1, we can use this information to deduce other information about the Earth
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Example
The radius of the Earth is 6.4 x 106 m and the gravitational strength at its surface is 9.8 N kg-1. a) assuming that the field is radial, calculate the mass of the Earth b) the radius of the moons orbit about the Earth is 3.8 x 108 m. Calculate the strength of the Earths gravitational field at this distance. c) The mass of the Moon is 7.4 x 1022 kg. Calculate the gravitational attraction between the Earth and the Moon.( G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2kg-2) Solution a) using g = GM/r2 so M = gr2/G = 6.0 x 1024 kg b) using g = GM/r2 = 2.8 x 10-3 N kg-1 c) using F = GMm/r2 = 2.1 x 1020 N
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Mass & weight

Mass is a measure of the inertia of a body to changes in velocity Unless the body is travelling close to the speed of light, its mass is constant In a gravitational field there is a force acting on the mass which is equal to the product of the mass and the gravitational field strength. This force is called the weight Weight = mass x gravitational field strength i.e W = mg Although mass is invariant, weight depends on gravitational field strength

Gravitational potential energy and gravitational potential

This is analogous to the electric potential energy and electric potential where work done in in bringing unit positive charge from infinity to the point is W = V Gravitational potential at a point in a field is defined as the work done in bringing unit mass from infinity to the point = - GM/r Symbol is (phi) and its unit is joule per kilogram (J/kg), the minus sign shows an attractive gravitational force similar to attractive between a negative charge and a positive test charge All points at a distance r have the same potential, known as equipotentials

Example
How much work is done by the gravitational field in moving a mass m of 2.0 kg from infinity to a point A, 0.40 m from a mass M of 30 kg? Solution The work which would have to be done by an external force is simply the change in gravitational potential energy. The potential energy at infinity is zero, so W = m = - mGM/r = - 1.0 x 10-8 J This is the work done by an external force and is negative, so the work done by the field is positive and is equal to 1.0 x 10-8 J

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Planet and satellite orbits

Most planets in the solar system have orbits that are nearly circular We now bring together the idea of a gravitational field and that of centripetal force This is to derive a relationship between the period and the radius of orbit of a planet describing a circular path about the Sun, or a satellite moving around the Earth or another planet Factually, the orbits of planets are not circular but elliptical, a fact recognised by Johannes Kepler of Tycho Brahes observations (circa 1560) who discovered 3 laws of planetary motion Law 1 the planets describe ellipses about the Sun as one focus Law 2 the line joining the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times Law 3 the squares of the periods of revolution of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the Sun
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Relationship between the period and the radius of orbit of a planet

Consider a planet of mass, m in circular orbit about the Sun of mass, M with a radius of orbit r Hence the gravitational force between the Sun and the planet is Fgrav = GMm/r2 using Newtons law of gravitation But this is the force that provides centripetal force mv2/r as the planet moves in its orbit, hence GMm/r2 = mv2/r The period T of the planet in its orbit is the time required for the planet to travel a distance 2r. It is moving at speed v, so v = 2r/T Putting this into GMm/r2 = mv2/r = m(2r/T)2/r Simplifying, gives T2 = (42/GM)r3 which is Keplers 3rd law For planets in the solar system M is the same for each planet and hence 42/GM is a constant Keplers 3rd law of planetary motion states that for planets describing circular orbits about the same central body, the square of the period is proportional to the cube of the radius of the orbit i.e T2 ~ r3

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Satellites and geostationary orbits

Satellites widely used in telecommunications are placed in equatorial orbits with exactly the same period or rotation as the Earth, and moving in the same direction as the Earth so that they are always at the same point on the equator This is known as geostationary orbits or parking orbits

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Example
For a geostationary satellite, calculate: a) the height above the Earths surface b) the speed in orbit (radius of Earth = 6.38 x 106 m, mass of Earth = 5.98 x 1024 kg, G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2kg-2) Solution a) the period of the satellite is 24 hours = 8.64 x 104 s using T2 = (42/GM)r3 , radius of orbit = 4.23 x 107 m hence distance above the Earths surface is = 3.59 x 107 m b) using v = 2r/T, the speed is given by v = 3070 ms-1
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Weightlessness
True weightlessness means, in the absence of a gravitational field i.e at an infinite distance from the Earth or any other attracting object Apparent weightlessness is when an object is in free fall The acceleration of objects inside is the same as that outside and hence the reaction on them is zero E.g when you are in a lift and the lift cable snaps, or objects inside a spacecraft have the same acceleration as outside the spacecraft

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