Temperature

12. Temperature Content 12.1 Thermal equilibrium 12.2 Temperature scales 12.3 Practical thermometers Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) show an appreciation that thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. (b) show an understanding that regions of equal temperature are in thermal equilibrium.

 (c) show an understanding that a physical property which varies with temperature may be used for the measurement of temperature and state examples of such properties. * (d) compare the relative advantages and disadvantages of resistance and thermocouple thermometers as previously calibrated instruments. (e) show an understanding that there is an absolute scale of temperature which does not depend on the property of any particular substance (i.e. the thermodynamic scale and the concept of absolute zero). (f) convert temperatures measured in kelvin to degrees Celsius: T / K = T / C + 273.15.

Kinetic theory

All matter is made up of tiny particles called molecules which are constantly in motion and attract each other strongly when close together They have kinetic energy because they are moving They have potential energy as the continuous random motion keeps them separated despite the attractions which try to pull them together

Temperature

Temperature is a scientific quantity which measures the degree of hotness and coldness of a body Molecules of an object are constantly in motion. The hotter the object the more kinetic energy its molecules have and the faster they move More fundamentally temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy which each molecule of an object possesses

Temperature fundamentals

A temperature scale is a range of numbers used to indicate levels or degrees of hotness or of thermal energy
Most common well known scales are Fahrenheit & Celsius (Centigrade) and Kelvin A thermometer is an instrument used to measure the degree of hotness or coldness of a body i.e temperature Many physical properties change with temperature e.g. solids, liquids and gases expand as their temperature is increased Electrical resistance of a metal wire increases with increase in temperature.

If 2 wires of different materials are twisted at one end and the other ends are connected to a voltmeter, the voltage reading depends on the temperature

Typical values of temperature in Celsius

Centre of sun Surface of sun Welding set Melting iron Bunsen flame Boiling water Highest atm temp Human body Freezing point of water Very cold day Oxygen liquefies Absolute temp

15,000,000 6000 3600 1540 900 100 58 37 0 -10 -183 -273

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Thermal equilibrium

Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when there is no net flow of thermal energy between them. Under such a condition, the two bodies are at the same temperature. When there is a net heat flow, thermal energy is transferred from the body with higher temperature to the other body with lower temperature. Heat is energy transferred due to temperature difference.

Temperature sensitive properties

The thermometric property of a thermometer is the physical property which is measured to determine the temperature.

The working material of the thermometer is known as the substance

Such thermometric properties include length, resistance, pressure, e.m.f. etc. For example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer makes use of the change in length of the mercury thread with temperature to measure the temperature of a body.

Establishing/fixing a temperature scale

The fact that substances change state(from solid to liquid, or from liquid to gas) at fixed temperatures is used to define reference temperatures In order to establish a temperature scale it is necessary to make use agreed upon fixed points. A fixed point is a standard degree of hotness which can be accurately reproduced (e.g. the melting of ice under specific conditions). At least two fixed points (usually the pure ice-point and the steam-point of pure water at stp) are required to define a scale of temperatures, with each fixed point given an exact numerical value. Needs to be pure otherwise the point is lowered by impurities Stp because any change in pressure alters the boiling point of water The thermometer is one instrument with two calibrated fixed points and equally spaced intervals or degrees between the points that is used to measure temperature.

Definition of fixed points of temperature.

By taking the value of the thermometric property at 2 fixed points and dividing the range of values into a number of equal steps or intervals, we can set up what is called an empirical scale of temperature for that instrument Empirical means derived by experiment The ice point is the temperature at which pure ice can exist in equilibrium with water at standard atmospheric pressure. The steam point is the temperature at which pure water can exist in equilibrium with its vapour at standard atmospheric pressure. The triple point of water is that unique temperature at which pure ice, pure water and pure water vapour can exist together in equilibrium.
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Procedures for establishing a temperature scale.

Choose a thermometric substance (e.g. solid, liquid or gas). Select the thermometric parameter X (e.g. X = length l, pressure P, resistance R or e.m.f. E) that would vary continuously with temperature changes. Choose two extreme fixed points of opposing degree of hotness like the melting point of ice (ice-point) and the boiling point of water (steam-point) which X will vary uniformly, or linearly, with the temperature changes between the points. Mark the two fixed points chosen on the instrument concerned and divide the interval between the two marks into equal divisions to establish the temperature scale.

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Celsius temperature scale

The two fixed points are the ice point (0 C) and the steam point (100 C). The interval between these two points are divided into a hundred equal divisions. Thus by measuring the thermometric property X at a temperature , may be found as follows: = (X - Xi)/(Xs - Xi) x 100 C where Xs and Xi are the thermometric properties at steam and ice point respectively

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For example, the mercury-in-glass thermometer makes use of the length L of the mercury column as the thermometric property X.

The Celsius temperature corresponding to a length l of an unknown temperature would be given by

= I/L x100 C

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Worked Example

The readings of a resistance thermometer are 20.0 ohms at ice point, 28.2 ohms at steam point, and 23.1 ohms at an unknown temperature.

Calculate the unknown temperature on the Centigrade scale of the thermometer.

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Solution
Given: X = 23.1 ohms, X0 = 20.0 ohms, X100 = 28.2 ohms. Unknown temperature = 100 x (23.1 - 20.0)/(28.2 - 20.0) = 100 x 3.1/8.2 = 37.8 C

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Thermodynamic temperature (T) scale

Decreasing the pressure of a real gas makes it behave more and more like an ideal gas whose relationship is PV/T = constant, where T is the thermodynamic temperature The colder an object becomes, the less kinetic energy its molecules possess and the slower they move There would be a temperature at which they would have no energy at all This is at -273.15 C called absolute zero In scientific work, often useful to measure temperatures on a scale which has its zero at absolute zero, the natural zero of temperature It is called the Kelvin scale ie K not degrees kelvin Each kelvin is the same size as the degree Celsius Kelvin temperature is found by adding 273.15 to the Celsius temperature
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Kelvin scale

The lower fixed point of this scale is the absolute zero The upper fixed point is the triple point of water. This point is the temperature at which saturated water vapor, pure water and ice all coexist in equilibrium. The triple point of water is defined as 273.16 K by international agreement (i.e ice point is actually 0.01 C) 1 kelvin is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water

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Celsius temperature scale

The Celsius temperature,, is defined by = T 273.15. 273.15 K is the ice point and 373.15 K the steam point giving 100 equal spaces between ice and steam Therefore ice point is 0 C. The steam point, at 760 mmHg (1.013 x 105 Pa) is 100 C.

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Shortcomings of the Centigrade scale

If one were to use different thermometers to measure the temperature of a body, the readings would be different. This disagreement arises because the assumption that the thermometric parameter, X, varies linearly with temperature is not true. Different thermometric substances and hence their properties do not respond in the same way to changes in temperature. They only agree at two fixed points, by definition. Only the Absolute Thermodynamic Scale is independent of the properties of the thermodynamic substances.

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Practical Thermometers

In general, all thermometers use some measurable property of a substance which is sensitive to temperature change. Industrial processes depend on sensitive, accurate measurement and control of temperature over a wide range Also convenient to read the temp on a meter or display or a computer The following are some types of thermometers which use certain property change to measure the change in temperature: constant-volume gas thermometer use pressure change with temperature of a gas at constant volume. resistance thermometer use electrical resistance change of a pure metal with temperature. liquid-in-glass thermometer use change in volume of liquid with temperature relative to that of glass. thermoelectric thermometer use change in electromotive force with temperature of two metals joined together (thermocouple)

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Constant Volume Gas Thermometer

In most accurate work, temperatures are measured by gas thermometers, for example, by the changes in pressure of a gas at constant volume as differences in empirical scales are small in the case of thermometers based on gases as thermometric substances A gas thermometer is a large, bulky and awkward instrument, demanding much skill and time, and useless for measuring changing temperatures. In practice, gas thermometers are used only for calibrating electrical thermometers resistance thermometers and thermocouples. For a temperature of C, = (P - P0)/(P100 P0) x 100 C where P, P0 and P100 are the respective gas pressures at the unknown temperature , the ice point and steam point.

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Thermo-Electric Thermometers

Electrical thermometers are more accurate than other types, except gas thermometers, quicker in action and less cumbersome. For a thermoelectric thermometer (thermocouple), the measuring element is the welded junction of two fine wires. It is very small in size, and can therefore measure the temperature almost at a point. It causes very little disturbance wherever it is placed, because the wires leading from it are so thin that heat loss along them is usually negligible. It has a very small heat capacity, and can therefore follow a rapidly changing temperature. To measure such a temperature, however, the e.m.f. of the junction must be measured with a galvanometer, instead of a potentiometer, and some accuracy is then lost. The Celsius temperature on the thermoelectric thermometer scale would be calculated from = (E - E0)/(E100 E0) x 100 C

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Resistance thermometer

The measuring element of a resistance thermometer is a spiral of fine wire (platinum). It has a greater size and heat capacity than a thermojunction, and cannot therefore measure a local or rapidly changing temperature. Covers a range from -260 to 1700 C but the range is not very linear, hence calibration is necessary If semiconductor materials are used as resistance thermometers, these are called thermistors where the resistance of these devices decreases very rapidly with increasing temperature = (R - R0)/(R100 R0) x 100 C

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Liquid-in-glass Thermometer

Liquid-in-glass thermometers use the fact that most liquids expand slightly when they are heated As the tube is narrow, a small increase in volume makes the 'thread' move a long way up The narrower the tube the more the sensitivity They are convenient, sensitive and moderately quick-acting The thermometric parameter for this type of thermometer is the length of mercury/alcohol column l. Therefore for any temperature between 0 C and 100 C, = (l - l0)/(l100 l0) x 100 C

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Mercury advantages/disadvantages

Advantages Does not wet sides of tube Thread easy to see Conducts heat well Responds quickly Cover a range of -40 to 350 C Disadvantages Freezes at -39 C Not suitable for low temp Poisonous Hazardous if broken Expensive
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Alcohol advantages/disadvantages

Advantages Freezes at -115 C Suitable for low temp Expansion greater than mercury Wider tube can be used Cover a range of -120 to 80 C Disadvantages Has to be coloured to be seen easily, usually red Clings to side of tube

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Clinical thermometer

Special type of thermometer to measure the temperature of the human body Average body temperature is 37 C Range around 35 - 43 C Tube has a constriction to stop the mercury thread running back so that reading can be taken after it has been removed from the patient's mouth

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