Superposition

16. Superposition Content 16.1 Stationary waves 16.2 Diffraction 16.3 Interference 16.4 Two-source interference patterns 16.5 Diffraction grating
Learning Outcomes * (a) explain and use the principle of superposition in simple applications. * (b) show an understanding of experiments which demonstrate stationary waves using microwaves, stretched strings and air columns. * (c) explain the formation of a stationary wave using a graphical method, and identify nodes and antinodes. (d) explain the meaning of the term diffraction. (e) show an understanding of experiments which demonstrate diffraction including the diffraction of water waves in a ripple tank with both a wide gap and a narrow gap. 1 (f) show an understanding of the terms interference and coherence.

 (g) show an understanding of experiments which demonstrate twosource interference using water, light and microwaves. (h) show an understanding of the conditions required if two-source interference fringes are to be observed. (i) recall and solve problems using the equation = ax/D for doubleslit interference using light. (j) recall and solve problems using the formula d sin = n and describe the use of a diffraction grating to determine the wavelength of light. (The structure and use of the spectrometer is not included.)

Wave interference

Wave interference is the phenomenon which occurs when two waves from 2 coherent sources meet while travelling along the same medium. 2 waves are said to be coherent if They produce waves of the same frequency They produce waves of the same phase (or with constant phase difference) The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape which results from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium When waves are produced on the surface of water, the wave crests will act like a convex lens while the troughs will act like a concave lens causing bright and dark fringes Waves interference can be constructive or destructive A wave-front is a line that joins all the points vibrating in-phase and is represented by the bright and dark fringes or maxima and minima respectively, collectively called the interference pattern 3

Principle of Superposition

The task of determining the shape of the resultant demands that the principle of superposition is applied. The principle of superposition is generally stated as follows: When two or more waves interfere i.e. meet at the same point, the resulting displacement is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that same point The principle applies to all types of waves

Constructive Interference

This is the superposition of 2 waves which are in phase to produce a resultant wave of maximum amplitude of the same original frequency In this example, amplitude A + amplitude A = 2A

Destructive Interference

This is the superposition of 2 waves which are in anti-phase to produce a resultant wave of zero amplitude In this example, amplitude A amplitude A = 0

Two waves traveling in the same direction:

Constructive and Destructive Interference

Two waves traveling in opposite directions: Constructive and Destructive Interference

Path or phase difference

Constructive interference occurs when the wave amplitudes reinforce each other, building a wave of even greater amplitude. This happens when the waves are in phase i.e. path difference is a whole number of wavelengths, n Destructive interference occurs when the wave amplitudes oppose each other, resulting in waves of reduced amplitude i.e. path difference is an odd number of wavelengths, (n + )

= WAVE IN PHASE Constructive interference

Waves in antiphase

Destructive interference

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Demonstration of interference pattern with a) sound waves b) light waves

By using a signal generator and 2 speakers (pg 216 Chris Mee fig 8.25) For light waves, must have 2 light sources of the same single frequency and not a mixture of frequencies. Also must have a constant phase relationship i.e. coherent

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Diffraction
Normally light is thought of as traveling in straight lines, but when light travels through an aperture, passes the edge of an object or passes round a small obstacle, it deviates from the straight-on direction and spreads out like waves Greatest effect occurs when the wavelength is about the same size as the aperture, or the gap through which the wave is passing is narrower The smaller the size of the obstacle, the greater is the effect of spreading This effect is known as diffraction and is powerful evidence that light has wave properties leading to the wave theory of light The amplitude of the diffracted wave is smaller than that of the incident wave Although it was Sir Isaac Newton who attempted to explain diffraction (but not based on the wave theory of light), it was Christian Huygens and later Augustin Fresnel who developed the wave theory of light
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Diffraction
When diffraction occurs: Wavelength is unchanged Frequency is unchanged Speed is unchanged Wave direction changes hence Wave velocity changes

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Huygens wavelet explanation

Huygens suggested that at any instant, all points on a wavefront could be regarded as secondary disturbances giving rise to their own outspreading circular wavelets (pg 230 Chris Mee fig 8.49) This causes interference patterns The central region of the pattern is a broad bright area with narrow dark fringes on either side, beyond which are further successions of bright and dark areas becoming less and less intense Path difference and wavelength explanation and equation (pg 231 Chris Mee fig 8.51) Path difference between 2 rays: d sin = where, d is the width of slit, is wavelength, or generally, d sin = n where n is an integer
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Huygens principle

The propagation of light wave can be predicted by assuming that each point on the wave-front acts as a source for secondary wavelets which spread out at all directions.

The envelope of these 2nd wavelets after a small period of time is the new wave-front.

Wave-front the large wave Wavelets small waves

Thomas Youngs double-slit experiment 1801

(pg 217 Chris Mee fig 8.29) Monochromatic light > single slit > double slit > dark and bright interference patterns on screen Light from monochromatic source; since monochromatic, is of the same frequency and phase, is diffracted at the slit, producing 2 light sources at the double slit This creates an interference pattern of dark and bright fringes on a screen The distance x between successive bright fringes on the screen is called the fringe width For small angles since sin tan the fringe width is related to the wavelength of the light source by the equation: x = L/d or = dx/L where x is the fringe width, L is the distance between the double slits to the screen, d is the distance between the centre of the slits (distance between 2 coherent sources)
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Interference Young's experiment

THE DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT

Originally performed by Young (1801) to demonstrate the wave-nature of light. Has now been done with electrons, neutrons, He atoms among others.

y d Incoming coherent beam of particles (or light)

d sin

Alternative method of detection: scan a detector across the plane and record number of arrivals at each point

Detecting screen

Exercises
Calculate the observed fringe width for a Youngs double slit experiment using light of wavelength 600 nm and slits 0.50 mm apart. The distance from the slits to the screen is 0.80 m. (ans: 0.96 mm) 2 loudspeakers connected to the same signal generator produce sounds of frequency 1000 Hz. The separation between the 2 speakers is 2.0 m. An observer who stands 5.0 m in front hears 3 consecutive loud sounds when he moves through a distance of 1.65 m in the direction parallel to the speakers. Determine a) the wavelength of the sound (ans: 0.33 m) b) the speed of the sound waves in air (ans: 330 ms )
-1

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Example
A Youngs double slit interferometer with green light of wavelength 546 nm. The double slits are 0.100 mm apart and the screen is 20 cm away from the double slits. Find i) the angular position of the 1st minimum ii) the angular position of the 5th maximum iii) the distance on the screen between the 1st maximum and the 5th maximum Solution i) at the 1st maximum the path difference is ; using d sin = /2, = 0.156 ii) at the 5th maximum, path difference is 5 using d sin = 5, = 1.56 iii) the fringe spacing is given by x = L/d = 1.09 mm hence distance between 1st and 5th maxima is 4x the fringe separation = 4.37 mm 20

Example
2 narrow parallel slits are illuminated by light of 2 wavelengths, 1 = 600nm and 2 is unknown. On the interference patterns produced on the screen, the 4th bright fringe for 1 coincides with the 6th bright fringe for 2 . Find 2 Solution Since the 4th fringe and the 6th fringe coincide, this means that the fringes lie at the same angular position. i.e d sin = 41 and d sin = 62 therefore 41 = 62 and hence 2 = 400 nm

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The diffraction grating

This is a plate on which there is a large number of parallel, identical, very closely spaced slits When monochromatic light is incident on this plate, a pattern of narrow bright fringes is produced due to interference and the principle of superposition To obtain constructive interference, the path difference should be an integral number of wavelengths (see page 233/234 of A/AS Physics by Chris Mee for explanation and diagram and different orders of diffraction) d sin = n

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Example
Monochromatic light is incident on a diffraction grating with 7.00 x 105 lines per meter. A second-order maximum is observed at an angle of diffraction of 40.0. Calculate the wavelength of the incident light. Solution The relationship between the slit spacing and the number N of lines per metre is d = 1/N Using d sin = n, = 460 nm

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Example
A diffraction grating is ruled with 3500 lines per cm. parallel light of wavelength 600 nm is viewed through the grating. Find i) the maximum number of orders of reinforcement that can be seen through the grating ii) the number of reinforcement maxima that will be observed Solution i) using d sin = n, n = d sin / but n will be maximum when sin = 1 so n = d/ = 4.76 i.e max order is 4 ii) the number of reinforcement maxima will be 9 (1 central beam, plus 4 on each side)

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The diffraction grating with white light

When white light is incident on a diffraction grating, each wavelength making up the white light is diffracted by a different amount as described by n = d sin In the visible spectrum(VIBGYOR), red light ,because it has the longest wavelength is diffracted through the largest angle, whereas violet is the least diffracted Hence a continuous spectrum is produced This phenomenon is an important use of diffraction grating in a spectrometer, used to investigate spectra By determining the angle of the diffracted image, the wavelength of light producing that image can be determined

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Stationary or standing waves

This is the phenomenon when 2 progressive waves of equal amplitude and frequency travel along the same line with the same speed but in opposite directions [recap: Waves which move energy from place to place are called progressive waves. Waves that do not are called stationary waves] The waves interfere producing a wave pattern in which the crests and troughs do not move, unlike progressive waves They travel along with the same speed e.g. strings in musical instruments Within a stationary/standing wave, regions of constructive interference are called antinodes and regions of destructive interference are called nodes. Nodes and antinodes do not move along the string

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Experiment:- Stretched String

video
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Stationary waves on strings

If a stretched string is plucked and allowed to vibrate freely, there are certain frequencies at which it will vibrate with a large amplitude This is known as the resonance frequency The simplest way a stretched string vibrates, has a wave pattern which has a single loop called the fundamental mode of vibration or the 1st harmonic

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fundamental frequency/1st harmonic, fo L = 1 loop = lo

- A -

- A - N 1st overtone/2nd harmonic, f1 = 2fo L = 2 loops = l1

N - A - N - A - N - A- N
2nd overtone/3rd harmonic, f2 = 3fo L = 3 loops = 1.5 l2
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General string expression

v = f , where v is the speed of the progressive waves which have interfered to produce the stationary wave of fundamental or 1st harmonic is 2L, hence f0 is v/2L of 1st overtone/2nd harmonic is L, hence f1 is v/L Hence general expression is fn = vn/2L where n is an integer

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Key features distinguishing stationary waves from progressive waves

In stationary waves, the nodes & antinodes do not move along the string, whereas in progressive waves, the crests and troughs do move along it In stationary waves, the amplitude of vibration varies with position along the string: zero at the node & maximum at an antinode. In a progressive wave, all points have the same amplitude Between adjacent nodes, all points of the stationary wave vibrate in phase. i.e. all particles of the string are at their max displacement at the same instant. In a progressive wave, phase varies continuously along the wave

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Stationary waves explained by interference

Pg 224 Chris Mee fig 8.41

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Experiment:- stationary waves in a closed tube or pipe - air columns

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Air columns
For stationary waves in a closed pipe, the air cannot move at the closed end, so it is always a node, N The open end is a position of maximum disturbance and hence is an antinode, A The particular frequencies at which stationary waves are obtained in a pipe are the resonant frequencies of the pipe

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Standing wave in one closed end and one open ended pipe

Standing waves in open ended pipe on both sides

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Stationary waves using microwaves

(pg 226 Chris Mee) Using a microwave source and a metal reflector, and moving a probe detector (connected to a meter) in between slowly towards and away from the source, the metered signal fluctuates from a minimum to a maximum The minima are nodes whereas the maxima are antinodes The distance between 2 successive nodes or antinodes is half the wavelength of the microwaves

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Measuring speed of sound using stationary waves using resonance method

(pg 226 Chris Mee) Uses the principle of resonance in a tube closed at one end A glass tube is placed in a cylinder of water and by raising the tube, the air column can be increased A tuning fork of known frequency is used to cause resonance 1st loud sound is at /4, next loud sound at 3/4 Difference is /2 = L2 - L1 since c = f , c = 2f(L2 - L1)

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Speed of sound using stationary waves in free air

(pg 227 Chris Mee) A signal generator and loudspeaker is used to produce a note of known frequency A reflector is used A microphone and oscilloscope are used to find 2 nodes (i.e. minimum amplitude points) Distance between 2 nodes d = /2 Using c = f , c = 2fd

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Example The string at the right is 1.5 meters long and is vibrating as the first harmonic. The string vibrates up and down with 33 complete vibrational cycles in 10 seconds. Determine the frequency, period, wavelength and speed for this wave. Solution:Given: L = 1.5 m 33 cycles in 10 seconds So, f = (33 cycles) / (10 seconds) = 3.3 Hz T = 1 / (3.3 Hz) = 0.303 seconds l = 2 L = 2 (1.5 m) = 3.0 m The speed of a wave can be calculated from its wavelength and frequency using the wave equation: v = f l = (3.3 Hz) (3. 0 m) = 9.9 m/s
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Example: A stretched wire of length 60.0 cm vibrates transversely. Waves travel along the wire at a speed 210 m/s. Three antinodes can be found in the stationary waves formed in between the two ends of the wire. Determine a. the wavelength of the waves which move along the wire b. the frequency Solution:
l

Antinodes

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