Lenses

Optics, Eugene Hecht, Chpt. 5

Lenses for imaging
Object produces many spherical waves
scattering centers
Want to project to different location
Object is collection
of scattering centers
Lens designed to project
and reproduce scattering centers
Diverging spherical waves
Converging spherical waves
Plane wave approximation
Distant object
Radius of curvature large
Approximate by plane wave
Image approximately at focal plane
Distant object gives plane waves
Lenses for collimation
Convert diverging spherical wave to plane wave
Plane wave like spherical wave with infinite
radius of curvature
First step toward imaging
plane wave like intermediate
To flatten wavefront
distance from S to D must be constant
independent of A
Use Snells law and geometry
Result is equation of hyperbola
n
i
l
i
+ n
t
l
t
= const

n
t

n
i

l
i

l
t

Spherical lenses
Object distance
Image distance
Vertex
Optic axis
Collimation
Focussing
Hyperbolic and elliptical lenses hard to make
Spherical lenses easy to make
Good enough approximation in many cases
Example: condition for imaging
path lengths from object to image are equal
n
1
l
0
+ n
2
l
i
= const
From geometry:

Paraxial approximation:
|
|
.
|

\
|
= +
o
o
i
i
i o
s n s n
R
n n

1 2 2 1
1
R
n n
s
n
s
n
i o
1 2 2 1

= +
First focal length
= object focal length
R
n n
n
f
o
2 2
1

=
Second focal length
= image focal length
R
n n
n
f
i
2 2
2

=
Real lenses
High index material finite
Two radii of curvature
Lensmakers formula


Focal length



Thin lens equation

( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
= +
2 1
2
1 1
1
1 1
R R
n
s s
i o
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 1
2
1 1
1
1
R R
n
f
f s s
i o
1 1 1
= +
Variable focal length
Positive and negative lens combos
Effective focal length (L
1
first)



Long focal-length lenses
Curvature of incoming light becomes important
Result: Lens does not behave as expected
Solution: Variable focal length

Achromats
Different wavelength dispersions
Dispersion ratio = 1/ (focal length ratio)
All colors focus at same point


( )
) (
2 1
2 1
f f d
f d f
+

Types of lenses
Focal length
general case



Special case -- double convex
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 1
2
1 1
1
1
R R
n
f
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2 1
2
1 1
1
1
R R
n
f
Sign conventions for radii
Lens aberrations
Focusing or collimating
hyperbolic lens shape is ideal
Spherical lens shape
gives insufficient refraction near edges
use plano-convex
Face flat toward spherical wavefront
extra refraction
spherical wave on flat interface
Why not double convex ?
Computer solution
plano convex better
only for collimation/focusing
4 f imaging
double convex better
symmetry argument
Additional refraction
when spherical wave
encounters planar boundary
Refraction angle
too shallow
Hyperbolic lens best
Aberration reduction
Non-axial focusing
Extended object
Light enters lens from several angles
Focus to points on sphere
Approximate by plane
Focal plane
Parallel ray focus to points on sphere
Focal plane
Basic lens ray tracing tricks
1. Rays through lens center
undeflected
2. Rays parallel to optic axis
go through focal point
3. Parallel rays
go to point on focal plane
f
f
1
2
3
Lens alignment
Position important
Angle less important
slightly changes focal length in one dimension
aberration
Use translation mount instead of tilt plate
f f
f f
Lens translation Lens tilt
Lenses for imaging
Single lens -- image
Two lenses -- depends on seperation
Interesting case -- telescope
equal focal lengths
4 f imaging
unequal focal lengths
magnification = f
2
/f
1

transverse = longitudinal
f s s
i o
1 1 1
= +
f
s
o
s
i

o
i
T
s
s
M =
2
T L
M M =
f f f f
f
1
f
1
f
2
f
2
4 f imaging
Imaging telescope
Imaging: transparent vs. scattering objects
Scattering object acts as array of sources
image is replica -- one or two lenses
4 f configuration puts image at a distance w/o magnification -- relay lenses
Transmission object -- curvature important
4 f configuration better
Scattering
Transmission
f f f f 2 f 2 f
f f f f
illumination
4 f imaging 2 f imaging
2 f 2 f
illumination
illum.
illum.
Beam expanders
Analogous to 4 f imaging
wavefront curvature preserved
magnification is focal length ratio
independent of lens spacing
Two types
Galilaen and spatial-filter arrangements
Galilaen easier to to set and maintain alignment
Spatial-filter arrangement
Galilaen
- f
1
f
2
d
Alignment of telescope
Need both tilt and translation (2 lenses)
first tilt to correct far field spot position
second translate to center spot in output lens
interate
focus to adjust collimation
Tilt to correct far-field alignment
Far-field
alignment
Translate to center spot in output lens
center spot
Focus to
set collimation
Spatial filters
Laser beam intensity noise
can view as interference of intersecting beamlets
Example: beamsplitter
front surface 4% reflection
4% intensity = 20% field
reflected field modulated between 0.8 and 1.2
intensity modulation between 0.64 and 1.4
large effect
Lens converts angle to position
use pinhole to filter out one position
Result is spatial filter
beamsplitter
destructive
f f
Pinhole
aperture
Aberrated
laser beam
Cleaned
laser beam
Sources of laser aberrations
Spatial filter for laser beam cleanup
Spatial filter alignment
Standard alignment procedure
Translate pinhole aperture until light comes through
Difficult procedure
usually no light until position almost perfect
random walk in 2D not efficient
Solution:
Defocus input lens
larger spot at aperture
easy to align
Refocus input lens
spot at aperture shrinks
fine tune alignment
Iterate
f f
Pinhole
aperture
Aberrated
laser beam
Cleaned
laser beam
Spatial filter alignment:
Translate pinhole
until light comes through
Problem with spatial filter design
Pinhole and output lens define alignment for rest of system
Translating pinhole destroys alignment
Better option:
Translate input lens
Leave output fixed -- alignment reference for rest of system
independent of changes in laser input
f f
Pinhole
aperture
Aberrated
laser beam
Cleaned
laser beam
Better spatial filter alignment technique:
Translate lens instead of pinhole
Resolution of lenses
First find angular resolution of aperture
Like multiple interference
Diffraction angles: d sin u = n
Diffraction halfwidth (resolution of grating): N d sin u
1/2
=
Take limit as d --> 0, but N d = a (constant)
Diffraction angle: sin u = n / d
only works for n = 0, u = 0 -- (forward direction)
Angular resolution: sin u
1/2
= / N d = / D
Lens converts angle resolution to position resolution
x
1/2
= f / D (n = 1)
circular lens: x
1/2
= 1.22 f / D
d
u
Path
difference
d sin u = n
Path difference
N d sin u
1/2
= n
N d = D
D
f
2 x
1/2

Lens resolution
Like array
of sources
limit of zero
separation
Grating resolution
More on lens/aperture resolution
Lens exchanges angle for position
Fourier transform
Lens is rectangular aperture
F.T. of rectangle is sinc(x) = sin(x)/x

D
f
2 x
1/2
=2.44 f / D
Lens resolution
Like array
of sources
limit of zero
separation Sinc function
Airy disk =
2-D Sinc function
Lens formulae
F-number: F/# = (M+1) f / D, (M is magnification)
Numerical aperture: NA = n sin | , (n is refractive index)
for small angles NA = D/2f = 1/(2 F#)
Focal spot size x
1/2
= 1.22 f / D = 1.22 F# = 1.22 2/NA
Depth of focus z = 1.22 x 4 (f/D)
2
cos |
small angles z = 1.22 /NA
2


z
x
1/2

D
f
|
Lens example
Microscope objectives
Spot size = 1.22 / (2 NA)
NA = n D / 2 f = n sin |
Example:
NA = 1.3, spot size: x
1/2
= / 2

Microscope objectives
z
x
1/2

D
f
|
Review Gaussian beams
Zero order mode is Gaussian
Intensity profile:
beam waist: w
0




confocal parameter: z


far from waist

divergence angle
2 2
/ 2
0
w r
e I I

=
2
2
0
0
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
w
z
w w
t

t
2
0
w
z
R
=
0
w
z
w
t

0 0
637 . 0
2
w w

= = O
Gaussian propagation
Lens resolution with laser light
(Gaussian beams)
Laser beam diameter is effective lens diameter: D = 2w
Fourier transform of Gaussian is Gaussian

Standard lens Gaussian
Aperture size D 2w
Focal spot size 1.22 f / D w
0
= (4/t) f / 2w = 1.27 f / 2w
Depth of focus 1.22 (2f / D)
2
z = 1.27 (2f /2w)
2

Fresnel lenses
Start with conventional lens
Constrain optical thickness to be modulo
Advantage -- thinner and lighter
Fresnel vs conventional lens
Other fresnel lenses
Spherical waves intersect plane
Phase depends on distance from
optic axis
Block out negative phase regions
Fresnel lens construction
Block out
one phase
Graded index (GRIN) lens
Glass rod with radial index gradient
Quadratic gradient -- high index in center
like lens
optical path length varies quadratically from center
Periodic focusing
laser spot size varies sinusoidally with distance

index
R
a
d
i
a
l

p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

GRIN rod lens
GRIN fiber coupler
epoxy
GRIN periodic focusing
Lenses as Fourier transformers
Angle at front focal plane --> position at back focal plane
Position at front focal plane --> angle at back focal plane
Angle maps to position Position maps to angle
Fourier transform example
4 f configuration -- transform plane in center
Fourier transform of letter E
Fourier transform of mesh
Lenses as retro-reflectors
Angle of input
defines position in focal plane
Mirror in focal plane
converts position back to angle at output
Output angle = input angle
translations still possible
Other retro-reflectors
Right angle reflectors, 90
reflection angles complementary, add 90
Net result is 180 reflection
translation can still occur -- off axis
Corner cube