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Name: K.SUDHA Designation: Lecturer Department: Electrical and Electronics Engineering Subject code: CS2361 Year: III Unit: II Title: Introduction to network layers
Internetworking
An internetwork is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate networking devices, that functions as a single large network. different kinds of network technologies that can be interconnected by routers and other networking devices to create an internetwork
Types
Local-area networks (LANs)enabled multiple users in a relatively small geographical area to exchange files and messages, as well as access shared resources such as file servers and printers. Wide-area networks (WANs) interconnect LANs with geographically dispersed users to create connectivity. technologies used for connecting LANs include T1, T3, ATM, ISDN, ADSL, Frame Relay, radio links, and others.
ETH
SourceAddr
Destination Addr
Options(variable)
Pad(variable)
Data
Datagram Delivery
Packet Format
Routing
Router
A router is a device that determines the next network point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination Allow different networks to communicate with each other A router creates and maintain a table of the available routes and their conditions and uses this information to determine the best route for a given packet. A packet will travel through a number of network points with routers before arriving at its destination.
There can be multiple routes defined. The route with a lower weight/metric will be tried first.
Routing
Routing
Routing
Routing Protocols
Static Routing Dynamic Routing
IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol): Route data within an Autonomous System RIP (Routing Information Protocol) RIP-2 (RIP Version 2) OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) IS-IS
the shortest path tree is contained in the routing table Calculations are based on the Bellman-Ford algorithm
Iskra Djonova-Popova
B 4
E
C
3
A 4 D
5
E
Cycle
Initial 1
Node
B
(., ) (1, 1)
C
(., ) (2, 2)
D
(., ) (3, 1)
E
(., ) (4, 2)
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2
B C
3 6
4 5 D E
Example of simple network with 5 nodes (routers) and 6 links (interfaces) The cost of all links is assumed to be 1
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Advantages
simple to implement
low requirement in processing and memory at the nodes suitable for small networks
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Disadvantages
Slow convergence Bouncing effect Counting to infinity problem
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Slow Convergence
2
A XXX B C
3 6
link 1 breaks
5
D E
When a link breaks the routers are supposed to reestablish the routing tables
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3 6
4 5 D E
4 5 D XXX E
A sends its old routing table before D sends the new routing table
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Subnets
Each organization assigns IP addresses to specific computers on its networks IP addresses are assigned so that all computers on the same LAN have similar addresses Each of these lans is known as a TCP/IP subnet Any portion of the IP address can be designated as a subnet using a subnet mask*
* Subnet masks tell computers what part of an IP address is to be used to determine whether a destination is on the same or a different subnet
Subnet Addressing
Figure 5-6
Subnet Addressing
Example 1
Suppose that the first two bytes are the subnet indicator with addresses of the form 131.156.x.x
Subnet Addressing
Example 2
Partial bytes can also be used as subnets. For example, consider the subnet mask 255.255.255.128, which is 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000. Here, all computers with the same first three bytes and last byte from 128 to 254 would be on the same subnet.
Providing Addresses
Providing addresses to networked computers
Static addressing Dynamic addressing
Static Addressing
Each computer is given an address through a configuration file Stored on individual computers Problems
Moves, changes, adds and deletes Individuals could change their own IP address Network renumbered
Dynamic Addressing
Server supplies a network layer address automatically
Each time user logs in For a specific lease period
Dynamic Addressing
Bootp and DHCP
Software installed on the client instructs the client to contact the server using data link layer addresses Message asks server to assign the client a unique network layer address Server runs corresponding software that sends the client its network address and subnet mask
Leasing
Bootp or DHCP server can either:
Assign the same network layer address to the client each time the client requests it (bootp) Lease the network address from the next available on a list of authorized addresses for as long as the client is connected or for a specified amount of time -- common with isps and dial-up users (DHCP)
Address Resolution
The process of:
Translating an application layer address to a network address (server name resolution) Translating the server name address to a data link layer address (data link layer address resolution)
Address Resolution
Server name resolution
Accomplished by the use of domain name service (DNS) Computers called name servers provide these DNS services
Address data base includes: server names and their corresponding IP address
Internet
DNS Request
Figure 5-7
Address Resolution
Data link layer address resolution
Broadcast message is sent to all computers in its subnet
if your IP address is xxx.Yyy.Zzz.Ttt, please send your data link layer address Uses address resolution protocol (ARP)
Network Routing
The process of determining the route a message will take through the network
Centralized Decentralized
Static routing Dynamic routing Broadcast or multicast routing
G A
A C A E E C
Internet Routes
WSU Canada Other destinations
UEN
Europe
Asia
West Coast
WSU Destination Route UEN Utah Oxford Europe U of Toronto Canada U of Singapore Asia UC Stanford West Coast Other Other
Types of Routing
Centralized routing Static routing (decentralized) Dynamic routing (adaptive and decentralized)
Distance vector Link state
Other types
Broadcast routing Multicast routing
Centralized Routing
All routing decisions are made by one computer Main routing for star and mesh topologies Routing tables located on each computer
Central computer sends updated tables as needed Routing table tells the device where to send messages
Simplicity - no wasted resources Hardware failures or changing conditions cause table to be out of sync
Decentralized Routing
Each of the following types of routing fall under the heading of decentralized routing Each device makes its own routing decisions with the use of a formal routing protocol Routing protocols are self-adjusting
Can automatically adapt to changes in the network configuration
Drawbacks
Slows down the network with status messages Requires more processing by each computer
Static Routing
Routing table developed by the network manager or some type of committee
Initial table sent to each computer which then updates the routing table as needed Reroutes as needed with down or removed circuits Updated when new devices announce their presence Used in relatively static networks that have few routing options
Disadvantages
Routing Protocols
RIP, IGP, OSPF, EGP, BGP Distance vector routing protocols (RIP, Appletalk,IPX, IGRP)
Routers inform neighboring routers of table Closest router is used to route packets
Routing Protocols
Border Gateway Protocol Internet Control Message Protocol Routing Information Protocol Open Shortest Path First Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
Routing Protocols
Internet protocols
BGP (border gateway protocol)
Exchanges information between autonomous systems about the condition of the internet Complex, hard to administer, exterior routing protocol
Routing Protocols
OSPF (open shortest path first)
Link state interior routing protocol used on the internet Counts number of computers, network traffic, network error rates to select the best route Doesnt broadcast to all devices just to routing devices Preferred TCP/IP, but also used by IPX/SPX
Broadcast Routing
Sends the message to all computers on the network Only computer with correct address processes the message Used only in bus networks Wastes network bandwidth
Multicasting
Similar to broadcasting Only works within one LAN or subnet Messages sent from one computer to another on the network is called a unicast message Messages sent to a group of computers is called a multicast message Targeting a specific work group IGMP (internet group management protocol)
Sends an IGMP multicast request to the routing computer Assigned a special class D IP address to identify the group The routing computer sets the data link layer address All participating machines will process messages sent to this address Sends a IGMP message notifying of end of session
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