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Computer networks

Name: K.SUDHA Designation: Lecturer Department: Electrical and Electronics Engineering Subject code: CS2361 Year: III Unit: II Title: Introduction to network layers

Internetworking
An internetwork is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate networking devices, that functions as a single large network. different kinds of network technologies that can be interconnected by routers and other networking devices to create an internetwork

Types
Local-area networks (LANs)enabled multiple users in a relatively small geographical area to exchange files and messages, as well as access shared resources such as file servers and printers. Wide-area networks (WANs) interconnect LANs with geographically dispersed users to create connectivity. technologies used for connecting LANs include T1, T3, ATM, ISDN, ADSL, Frame Relay, radio links, and others.

ETH

IPV4 Packet Header


Version HLen Ident TTL Protocol TOS Length Flags Offset Checksum

SourceAddr
Destination Addr

Options(variable)

Pad(variable)
Data

Datagram Delivery

Packet Format

IPV4 Packet header

Fragmentation and Reassembly

Fragmentation and Reassembly

Fragmentation and Reassembly

(RARP)Reverse Address Resolution Protocol


(RARP) is a Link layer networking protocol RARP is described in internet EngineeringTask ForceETF) publication RFC 903 It has been rendered obsolete by the Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP) and the modern Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP) BOOTP configuration server assigns an IP address to each client from a pool of addresses. BOOTP uses the User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Routing

Router
A router is a device that determines the next network point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination Allow different networks to communicate with each other A router creates and maintain a table of the available routes and their conditions and uses this information to determine the best route for a given packet. A packet will travel through a number of network points with routers before arriving at its destination.

There can be multiple routes defined. The route with a lower weight/metric will be tried first.

Routing

Routing

Routing

Routing Protocols
Static Routing Dynamic Routing
IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol): Route data within an Autonomous System RIP (Routing Information Protocol) RIP-2 (RIP Version 2) OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) IS-IS

EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol): Route data between Autonomous


Systems BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)

The Routing Algorithm


u

the shortest path tree is contained in the routing table Calculations are based on the Bellman-Ford algorithm

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The Centralized Version of the Algorithm


A
3 D 6 1

B 4
E

C
3

A 4 D

5
E

Cycle
Initial 1

Node

B
(., ) (1, 1)

C
(., ) (2, 2)

D
(., ) (3, 1)

E
(., ) (4, 2)

Iskra Djonova-Popova

The Distributed Version


A 1

2
B C

Routing table for A From A to B C D E Link Cost 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 2

3 6

4 5 D E

Example of simple network with 5 nodes (routers) and 6 links (interfaces) The cost of all links is assumed to be 1

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Advantages
simple to implement
low requirement in processing and memory at the nodes suitable for small networks

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Disadvantages
Slow convergence Bouncing effect Counting to infinity problem

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Slow Convergence
2
A XXX B C

3 6

link 1 breaks

5
D E

When a link breaks the routers are supposed to reestablish the routing tables

Iskra Djonova-Popova

The Bouncing Effect


1
A B XXX C

3 6

4 5 D E

link 2 breaks and A sends its routing table to B before B sends it to A


Iskra Djonova-Popova

Counting to Infinity Problems


2
A XXX B C

4 5 D XXX E

Links 1 and 6 break.

A sends its old routing table before D sends the new routing table
Iskra Djonova-Popova

Subnets
Each organization assigns IP addresses to specific computers on its networks IP addresses are assigned so that all computers on the same LAN have similar addresses Each of these lans is known as a TCP/IP subnet Any portion of the IP address can be designated as a subnet using a subnet mask*
* Subnet masks tell computers what part of an IP address is to be used to determine whether a destination is on the same or a different subnet

Subnet Addressing

Figure 5-6

Subnet Addressing
Example 1
Suppose that the first two bytes are the subnet indicator with addresses of the form 131.156.x.x

Then, 131.156.29.156 and 131.156.34.215 would be on the same subnet.


The subnet mask would be 255.255.0.0, which corresponds to 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000, where 1 indicates that the position is part of the subnet address and a 0 indicates that it is not.

Subnet Addressing
Example 2
Partial bytes can also be used as subnets. For example, consider the subnet mask 255.255.255.128, which is 11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000. Here, all computers with the same first three bytes and last byte from 128 to 254 would be on the same subnet.

Providing Addresses
Providing addresses to networked computers
Static addressing Dynamic addressing

Static Addressing
Each computer is given an address through a configuration file Stored on individual computers Problems
Moves, changes, adds and deletes Individuals could change their own IP address Network renumbered

Companies do not have a good way of tracking the addresses

Dynamic Addressing
Server supplies a network layer address automatically
Each time user logs in For a specific lease period

Two standards for dynamic addressing


Bootstrap protocol (bootp) - developed in 1985 Dynamic host control* protocol (DHCP), developed in 1993
* some say C = configuration

Dynamic Addressing
Bootp and DHCP
Software installed on the client instructs the client to contact the server using data link layer addresses Message asks server to assign the client a unique network layer address Server runs corresponding software that sends the client its network address and subnet mask

Leasing
Bootp or DHCP server can either:
Assign the same network layer address to the client each time the client requests it (bootp) Lease the network address from the next available on a list of authorized addresses for as long as the client is connected or for a specified amount of time -- common with isps and dial-up users (DHCP)

Address Resolution
The process of:
Translating an application layer address to a network address (server name resolution) Translating the server name address to a data link layer address (data link layer address resolution)

Address Resolution
Server name resolution
Accomplished by the use of domain name service (DNS) Computers called name servers provide these DNS services
Address data base includes: server names and their corresponding IP address

Weber State University


DNS Request Client computer DNS Response DNS Server sol.acs.unt.edu 137.90.2.122

LAN DNS Request

DNS Response Root DNS Server for .EDU domain

Internet
DNS Request

Northern Illinois University

DNS Server netmgr.cso.niu.edu 131.156.1.11 LAN DNS Response

Figure 5-7

Address Resolution
Data link layer address resolution
Broadcast message is sent to all computers in its subnet
if your IP address is xxx.Yyy.Zzz.Ttt, please send your data link layer address Uses address resolution protocol (ARP)

Network Routing
The process of determining the route a message will take through the network
Centralized Decentralized
Static routing Dynamic routing Broadcast or multicast routing

Connectionless Connection-oriented routing

Route and Route Table


B C

G A

Computer B Destination Route A C D E F G

A C A E E C

Internet Routes
WSU Canada Other destinations

UEN

Europe

Asia

West Coast

WSU Destination Route UEN Utah Oxford Europe U of Toronto Canada U of Singapore Asia UC Stanford West Coast Other Other

Types of Routing
Centralized routing Static routing (decentralized) Dynamic routing (adaptive and decentralized)
Distance vector Link state

Other types
Broadcast routing Multicast routing

Centralized Routing
All routing decisions are made by one computer Main routing for star and mesh topologies Routing tables located on each computer
Central computer sends updated tables as needed Routing table tells the device where to send messages

Simplicity - no wasted resources Hardware failures or changing conditions cause table to be out of sync

Decentralized Routing
Each of the following types of routing fall under the heading of decentralized routing Each device makes its own routing decisions with the use of a formal routing protocol Routing protocols are self-adjusting
Can automatically adapt to changes in the network configuration

Drawbacks
Slows down the network with status messages Requires more processing by each computer

Static Routing
Routing table developed by the network manager or some type of committee
Initial table sent to each computer which then updates the routing table as needed Reroutes as needed with down or removed circuits Updated when new devices announce their presence Used in relatively static networks that have few routing options

Dynamic Routing (Adaptive)


Routing messages over the fastest route
Used when there are multiple routes in the network Improves network performance by selecting the fastest route to avoid bottlenecks or busy circuits Initial table developed by network manager Dynamically updated with changing conditions by the devices themselves Monitors message transmission time or each device reports how busy it is to avoid bottlenecks Requires more processing by each computer Wastes network capacity

Disadvantages

Dynamic Routing (Adaptive)


Distance vector dynamic routing
The number of hops along a route Exchange information with the neighboring computers every few minutes

Link state dynamic routing


The number of hops along a route The speed of the circuits on the route How busy the route is Exchanges information with other routing devices every 15-30 minutes Tries to determine the fastest route Converges reliable routing information more quickly

Routing Protocols
RIP, IGP, OSPF, EGP, BGP Distance vector routing protocols (RIP, Appletalk,IPX, IGRP)
Routers inform neighboring routers of table Closest router is used to route packets

Link State routing protocols (OSPF)


Routers have at least a partial map of the network Changes are flooded throughout network Routes are recomputed

Interior and Exterior Routing


Interior routing is within an autonomous system (collection of routers under a single administrative control)RIP, OSPF Exterior routing occurs between autonomous systems Network access protocols operate at Layer 2.
Transport of IP datagrams IP over point-to-point connections is used by ISP when you dial in

Routing Protocols
Border Gateway Protocol Internet Control Message Protocol Routing Information Protocol Open Shortest Path First Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

Routing Protocols
Internet protocols
BGP (border gateway protocol)
Exchanges information between autonomous systems about the condition of the internet Complex, hard to administer, exterior routing protocol

ICMP (internet control message protocol)


Simple, interior routing protocol used with the internet Reports routing errors but is limited in the ability to update

RIP (routing information protocol)


Dynamic distance vector interior routing protocol Counts the number of devices on each route Selects the route with the least number of devices

Routing Protocols
OSPF (open shortest path first)
Link state interior routing protocol used on the internet Counts number of computers, network traffic, network error rates to select the best route Doesnt broadcast to all devices just to routing devices Preferred TCP/IP, but also used by IPX/SPX

EIGRP (enhanced interior gateway routing protocol)


Link state interior routing protocol developed by CISCO Uses route transmission capacity, delay, reliability and load to select best route Stores multiple routing tables

SAP (service advertisement protocol)


Netware servers send SAP advertisements Novells broadcast protocol

Broadcast Routing
Sends the message to all computers on the network Only computer with correct address processes the message Used only in bus networks Wastes network bandwidth

Multicasting
Similar to broadcasting Only works within one LAN or subnet Messages sent from one computer to another on the network is called a unicast message Messages sent to a group of computers is called a multicast message Targeting a specific work group IGMP (internet group management protocol)
Sends an IGMP multicast request to the routing computer Assigned a special class D IP address to identify the group The routing computer sets the data link layer address All participating machines will process messages sent to this address Sends a IGMP message notifying of end of session

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