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Introduction
Networking
Point to point communication (individual network connection per pair of computers) is not usually practical Devices are too far apart Large set of devices would need impractical number of connections Installing wires consumes time and money Maintaining wires consumes money, especially longdistance connections Solution is a communications network Shared central core Many attached stations
Network Components
Transmission hardware Special-purpose hardware devices
Interconnect transmission media Control transmission Run protocol software
Protocol software
Encoded and formats data Detects and corrects problems
Network Functions
Provides application to application communication that is Reliable Fair Efficient secure Automatically detects and corrects Data corruption data loss Duplication out-of-order delivery Automatically finds optimal path from source to destination
Classification
Local area network (LAN) Metropolitan area network (MAN) Wide area network (WAN) LAN and WAN most widely deployed
Protocol: what?
An agreement about communication that specifies
format of messages meaning of messages rules for exchange procedures for handling problems
Protocol: need
Hardware is low level, and many problems can occur
bits corrupted or destroyed entire packet lost packet duplicated packets delivered out of order
designed in layers Each layer devoted to one sub-problem E.g., ISO 7-layer reference model
Functions
Encapsulation Segmentation and reassmebly Connection control Ordered delivery Flow control Error control Addressing Multiplexing Transmission services
OSI Layers
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical
Physical Layer
Physical interface between data transmission device (e.g. computer) and transmission medium or network Characteristics of transmission medium Signal levels Data rates Signal encoding etc.
Layer 3,4,5
Internet Layer (IP) Systems may be attached to different networks Routing functions across multiple networks Implemented in end systems and routers Transport Layer (TCP/UDP) End to end transfer of data May include reliability mechanism (TCP) Hides detail of underlying network Application Layer Support for user applications Communication between processes or applications e.g. http, SMTP
PDUs in TCP/IP
OSI v TCP/IP
Data Communications
The Interface
Interfacing
Data processing devices (or data terminal equipment, DTE) do not (usually) include data transmission facilities Need an interface called data circuit terminating equipment (DCE)
e.g. modem, NIC
DCE transmits bits on medium DCE communicates data and control info with DTE
Characteristics of Interface
Mechanical
Connection plugs
Electrical
Voltage, timing, encoding
Functional
Data, control, timing, grounding
Procedural
Sequence of events
Modem
hardware device used for long-distance communication contains separate circuitry for modulation of outgoing signal demodulation of incoming signal name: modulator/demodulator conventional: four wires to transmit modulated electrical wave optical: use glass fibers, and transmit modulated light wireless: use air/space, and transmit modulated RF wave dialup: use voice telephone system, transmit modulated audio tone
Modem: usage
one modem at each end separate wires carry signals in each direction modulator on one modem connects to demodulator on other
Dialup modem
In practice, a dialup modem uses multiple tones simultaneously The modem can dial, and answer The carrier is the audio tone Full-duplex modem provides two-way communication allows simultaneous transmission uses four wires Half-duplex modem provides two-way communication transmit in one direction at any time uses two wires
Dialup modem
DSU/CSU
Data service unit/Channel service unit performs two functions; usually a single box needed because telephone industry digital encoding differs from computer industry digital encoding DSU portion translates between two encoding Converts digital signal coming from a digital circuit (through the CSU), into another digital format that is compatible with the data terminal equipment DTE(e.g., a router) to which data is sent CSU portion terminates line, and allows for maintenance
DSU/CSU (2)
Data Communications
Data Link Control
Flow Control
needed because
sending computer faster than receiving computer sending application faster than receiving application
related to buffering two forms: stop-and-go, and sliding window Ensuring the sending entity does not overwhelm the receiving entity
Preventing buffer overflow
Transmission time
Time taken to emit all bits into medium
Propagation time
Time for a bit to traverse the link
Receiving side
receives and consumes packet transmits ACK signal to sender
Destination can stop flow by not sending ACK Works well for a few large frames Inefficient
Stop-and-wait
Sliding window
Error Detection
Data can be corrupted during transmission
bits lost bit values changed
Statistical guarantee
ARQ
Automatic Repeat Request Stop and wait Go back N Selective reject (selective retransmission)
DLC Protocols
HDLC: High Level Data Link Control LAPB: Link Access Procedure, Balanced LAPD: Link Access Procedure, D-Channel LLC: Logical Link Control Frame Relay: Uses Link Access Procedure for Frame-Mode Bearer Services (LAPF) ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode
Data Communications
Switching Techniques
Switching Networks
Long distance transmission is typically done over a network of switched nodes Nodes not concerned with content of data End devices are stations
Computer, terminal, phone, etc.
A collection of nodes and connections is a communications network Data routed by being switched from node to node
Nodes
Nodes may connect to other nodes only, or to stations and other nodes Node to node links usually multiplexed Network is usually partially connected
Some redundant connections are desirable for reliability Two different switching technologies Circuit switching Packet switching
Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching
Dedicated communication path between two stations Three phases
Establish Transfer Disconnect
Must have switching capacity and channel capacity to establish connection Must have intelligence to work out routing Inefficient
Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection If no data, capacity wasted
Set up (connection) takes time Once connected, transfer is transparent Developed for voice traffic (phone)
Packet Switching
Principles
Network has Shared central core Many attached stations Sharing problems Demand high Some applications have large transfers Some applications cannot wait Need a fairness mechanism Circuit switching designed for voice Resources dedicated to a particular call Much of the time a data connection is idle Data rate is fixed: Both ends must operate at the same rate
Advantages
Line efficiency
Single node to node link can be shared by many packets over time Packets queued and transmitted as fast as possible
Packet network
Building blocks Point-to-point long-distance connections Packet switches Hardware device Connects to other packet switches, and computers Forwards packets Uses addresses Special-purpose computer system CPU Memory I/O interfaces firmware
Building a WAN
place one or more packet switches at each site interconnect switches LAN technology for local connections Leased digital circuits for long-distance connections interconnections depend on estimated traffic reliability needed
switch
stores packet in memory examines packets destination address forwards packet toward destination
WAN addressing
Need
unique address for each computer efficient forwarding
Two-part address
packet switch number (high-order bits) computer on that switch (low-order bits)
Datagram
Each packet treated independently Packets can take any practical route Packets may arrive out of order Packets may go missing Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover from missing packets
Virtual Circuit
Preplanned route established before any packets sent Call request and call accept packets establish connection (handshake) Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead of destination address No routing decisions required for each packet Clear request to drop circuit Not a dedicated path
Routing
Complex, crucial aspect of packet switched networks Characteristics required
Correctness Simplicity Robustness Stability Fairness Optimality Efficiency
Costing of Routes
Routing Strategies
Fixed Flooding Random Adaptive
Data Communications
Network Properties
Public
owned by a common carrier individuals or corporations can subscribe public refers to availability, not data
no need for staff to install/operate network (+) dependency on carrier (-) subscription fee (-)
Connectionless Networks
Operation Sender
forms packets to be sent places address of intended recipient in packet transfers packet to network for delivery
Network
uses destination address to forward packet delivers
Characteristics packet contains identification of destination each packet handled independently no setup required before transmitting data no cleanup required after sending data Similar: postcards
Connection-Oriented networks
Sender
requests connection to receiver waits for network to form connection leaves connection in place while sending data terminates connection when no longer needed
Network
receives connection request forms path to specified destination and informs sender transfers data across connection removes connection when sender requests Similar: telephone calls
What Is Congestion?
Congestion occurs when the number of packets being transmitted through the network approaches the packet handling capacity of the network Congestion control aims to keep number of packets below level at which performance falls off dramatically Data network is a network of queues Generally 80% utilization is critical Finite queues mean data may be lost
Congestion avoidance
Rate control limit rate of data transmission performed by sending computer performed by network Network rate control monitor incoming traffic drop or reject packets over rate called traffic shaping
Security
Increasingly important aspects
Data Confidentiality Data Integrity Data Availability Privacy
Mechanisms
Message authentication code (MAC) Passwords Digital signatures Encryption Perimeter security
Firewall Implementation
packet filter
Configurable specifies which packets can pass allows manager to specify addresses, protocol ports, and packet types
often part of router note: two packet filters and intermediate computer are required for optimal firewall