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Data Communications

Introduction

Networking
Point to point communication (individual network connection per pair of computers) is not usually practical Devices are too far apart Large set of devices would need impractical number of connections Installing wires consumes time and money Maintaining wires consumes money, especially longdistance connections Solution is a communications network Shared central core Many attached stations

Network Components
Transmission hardware Special-purpose hardware devices
Interconnect transmission media Control transmission Run protocol software

Protocol software
Encoded and formats data Detects and corrects problems

Network Functions
Provides application to application communication that is Reliable Fair Efficient secure Automatically detects and corrects Data corruption data loss Duplication out-of-order delivery Automatically finds optimal path from source to destination

Classification
Local area network (LAN) Metropolitan area network (MAN) Wide area network (WAN) LAN and WAN most widely deployed

Protocol: what?
An agreement about communication that specifies
format of messages meaning of messages rules for exchange procedures for handling problems

Protocol: need
Hardware is low level, and many problems can occur
bits corrupted or destroyed entire packet lost packet duplicated packets delivered out of order

Need mechanisms to distinguish among


multiple computers on a network multiple applications on a computer multiple copies of a single application on a computer

Protocol: set of many


work together each protocol solves part of communication problem known as
protocol suite, or protocol family

designed in layers Each layer devoted to one sub-problem E.g., ISO 7-layer reference model

Functions
Encapsulation Segmentation and reassmebly Connection control Ordered delivery Flow control Error control Addressing Multiplexing Transmission services

OSI - The Model


Open Systems Interconnection Developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) A layer model: Seven layers Each layer performs a subset of the required communication functions Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive functions Each layer provides services to the next higher layer Changes in one layer should not require changes in other layers A theoretical system delivered too late! TCP/IP is the de facto standard

OSI Layers
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical

The OSI Environment

OSI Layers (1)


Layer1: Physical
Underlying hardware Physical interface between devices
Mechanical Electrical Functional Procedural

Layer2: Data Link (media access)


Hardware frame definitions Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating a reliable link Error detection and control Higher layers may assume error free transmission

OSI Layers (2)


Layer3: Network Packet forwarding Transport of information Higher layers do not need to know about underlying technology Not needed on direct links Layer4: Transport (reliability) Exchange of data between end systems Error free In sequence No losses No duplications Quality of service

OSI Layers (3)


Layer5: Session Login and passwords Control of dialogues between applications Dialogue discipline Grouping Recovery Layer6: Presentation (data representation) Data formats and coding Data compression Encryption Layer7: Application individual application programs Means for applications to access OSI environment

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture


Developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for its packet switched network (ARPANET) Used by the global Internet Dominant commercial protocol architecture Specified and extensively used before OSI No official model but a working one.
Application layer Host to host or transport layer Internet layer Network access layer Physical layer

Physical Layer
Physical interface between data transmission device (e.g. computer) and transmission medium or network Characteristics of transmission medium Signal levels Data rates Signal encoding etc.

Network Access Layer


Logical interface between end system and network Exchange of data between end system and network Destination address provision Invoking services like priority

Layer 3,4,5
Internet Layer (IP) Systems may be attached to different networks Routing functions across multiple networks Implemented in end systems and routers Transport Layer (TCP/UDP) End to end transfer of data May include reliability mechanism (TCP) Hides detail of underlying network Application Layer Support for user applications Communication between processes or applications e.g. http, SMTP

TCP/IP Protocol Architecture Model

PDUs in TCP/IP

Some Protocols in TCP/IP Suite

OSI v TCP/IP

Data Communications
The Interface

Interfacing
Data processing devices (or data terminal equipment, DTE) do not (usually) include data transmission facilities Need an interface called data circuit terminating equipment (DCE)
e.g. modem, NIC

DCE transmits bits on medium DCE communicates data and control info with DTE

Characteristics of Interface
Mechanical
Connection plugs

Electrical
Voltage, timing, encoding

Functional
Data, control, timing, grounding

Procedural
Sequence of events

Modem
hardware device used for long-distance communication contains separate circuitry for modulation of outgoing signal demodulation of incoming signal name: modulator/demodulator conventional: four wires to transmit modulated electrical wave optical: use glass fibers, and transmit modulated light wireless: use air/space, and transmit modulated RF wave dialup: use voice telephone system, transmit modulated audio tone

Modem: usage
one modem at each end separate wires carry signals in each direction modulator on one modem connects to demodulator on other

Dialup modem
In practice, a dialup modem uses multiple tones simultaneously The modem can dial, and answer The carrier is the audio tone Full-duplex modem provides two-way communication allows simultaneous transmission uses four wires Half-duplex modem provides two-way communication transmit in one direction at any time uses two wires

Dialup modem

DSU/CSU
Data service unit/Channel service unit performs two functions; usually a single box needed because telephone industry digital encoding differs from computer industry digital encoding DSU portion translates between two encoding Converts digital signal coming from a digital circuit (through the CSU), into another digital format that is compatible with the data terminal equipment DTE(e.g., a router) to which data is sent CSU portion terminates line, and allows for maintenance

DSU/CSU (2)

Cost of digital circuit depends on distance, and capacity

Data Communications
Data Link Control

Flow Control
needed because
sending computer faster than receiving computer sending application faster than receiving application

related to buffering two forms: stop-and-go, and sliding window Ensuring the sending entity does not overwhelm the receiving entity
Preventing buffer overflow

Transmission time
Time taken to emit all bits into medium

Propagation time
Time for a bit to traverse the link

Stop and Wait


Sending side
transmits one packet waits for signal (ACK) from receiver before sending next frame

Receiving side
receives and consumes packet transmits ACK signal to sender

Destination can stop flow by not sending ACK Works well for a few large frames Inefficient

Sliding Window Flow Control


Allow multiple frames to be in transit Receiver has buffer of W frames long Transmitter can send up to W frames without ACK Each frame is numbered ACK includes number of next frame expected Window tells how many packets can be sent Window moves as acknowledgements arrive Sliding window is fast, and useful in high-speed networks

Sliding Window Diagram

Stop-and-wait

Sliding window

Why sliding window


simultaneously increase throughput, and control flow speedup Tw = min(B, Tg x W) Where Tw: is sliding window throughput B: is underlying hardware bandwidth Tg: is stop-and-go throughput W: is window size

Error Detection
Data can be corrupted during transmission
bits lost bit values changed

Frame includes additional information to detect/correct error


set by sender checked by receiver

Statistical guarantee

Error detection and recovery techniques


Parity bit one additional bit per character can use even or odd parity: value of parity bit is such that character has even or odd number of ones Even number of bit errors goes undetected Checksum treat data as sequence of integers compute and send arithmetic sum handles multiple bit errors cannot handle all errors Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) mathematical function for data more complex to compute, but handles more errors

ARQ
Automatic Repeat Request Stop and wait Go back N Selective reject (selective retransmission)

DLC Protocols
HDLC: High Level Data Link Control LAPB: Link Access Procedure, Balanced LAPD: Link Access Procedure, D-Channel LLC: Logical Link Control Frame Relay: Uses Link Access Procedure for Frame-Mode Bearer Services (LAPF) ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Data Communications
Switching Techniques

Switching Networks
Long distance transmission is typically done over a network of switched nodes Nodes not concerned with content of data End devices are stations
Computer, terminal, phone, etc.

A collection of nodes and connections is a communications network Data routed by being switched from node to node

Nodes
Nodes may connect to other nodes only, or to stations and other nodes Node to node links usually multiplexed Network is usually partially connected
Some redundant connections are desirable for reliability Two different switching technologies Circuit switching Packet switching

Simple Switched Network

Circuit Switching

Circuit Switching
Dedicated communication path between two stations Three phases
Establish Transfer Disconnect

Must have switching capacity and channel capacity to establish connection Must have intelligence to work out routing Inefficient
Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection If no data, capacity wasted

Set up (connection) takes time Once connected, transfer is transparent Developed for voice traffic (phone)

Packet Switching

Principles
Network has Shared central core Many attached stations Sharing problems Demand high Some applications have large transfers Some applications cannot wait Need a fairness mechanism Circuit switching designed for voice Resources dedicated to a particular call Much of the time a data connection is idle Data rate is fixed: Both ends must operate at the same rate

Advantages
Line efficiency
Single node to node link can be shared by many packets over time Packets queued and transmitted as fast as possible

Data rate conversion


Each station connects to the local node at its own speed Nodes buffer data if required to equalize rates

Packets are accepted even when network is busy


Delivery may slow down

Priorities can be used

Packet network
Building blocks Point-to-point long-distance connections Packet switches Hardware device Connects to other packet switches, and computers Forwards packets Uses addresses Special-purpose computer system CPU Memory I/O interfaces firmware

Building a WAN
place one or more packet switches at each site interconnect switches LAN technology for local connections Leased digital circuits for long-distance connections interconnections depend on estimated traffic reliability needed

Store and Forward


basic paradigm used in packet switched network packet
sent from source computer travels switch-to-switch delivered to destination

switch
stores packet in memory examines packets destination address forwards packet toward destination

WAN addressing
Need
unique address for each computer efficient forwarding

Two-part address
packet switch number (high-order bits) computer on that switch (low-order bits)

Datagram
Each packet treated independently Packets can take any practical route Packets may arrive out of order Packets may go missing Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover from missing packets

Virtual Circuit
Preplanned route established before any packets sent Call request and call accept packets establish connection (handshake) Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead of destination address No routing decisions required for each packet Clear request to drop circuit Not a dedicated path

Routing
Complex, crucial aspect of packet switched networks Characteristics required
Correctness Simplicity Robustness Stability Fairness Optimality Efficiency

Costing of Routes

Routing Strategies
Fixed Flooding Random Adaptive

Data Communications
Network Properties

Network ownership and service type


Private
owned by individual or corporation restricted to owners use typically used by large corporations complete control (+) installation and operation costs (-)

Public
owned by a common carrier individuals or corporations can subscribe public refers to availability, not data

no need for staff to install/operate network (+) dependency on carrier (-) subscription fee (-)

Connectionless Networks
Operation Sender
forms packets to be sent places address of intended recipient in packet transfers packet to network for delivery

Network
uses destination address to forward packet delivers

Characteristics packet contains identification of destination each packet handled independently no setup required before transmitting data no cleanup required after sending data Similar: postcards

Connection-Oriented networks
Sender
requests connection to receiver waits for network to form connection leaves connection in place while sending data terminates connection when no longer needed

Network
receives connection request forms path to specified destination and informs sender transfers data across connection removes connection when sender requests Similar: telephone calls

Two connection types


Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) entered manually survives reboot usually persists for months Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC) requested dynamically initiated by application terminated when application exits

What Is Congestion?
Congestion occurs when the number of packets being transmitted through the network approaches the packet handling capacity of the network Congestion control aims to keep number of packets below level at which performance falls off dramatically Data network is a network of queues Generally 80% utilization is critical Finite queues mean data may be lost

Congestion avoidance
Rate control limit rate of data transmission performed by sending computer performed by network Network rate control monitor incoming traffic drop or reject packets over rate called traffic shaping

Congestion Control in Packet Switched Networks


Send control packet to some or all source nodes
Requires additional traffic during congestion

Rely on routing information


May react too quickly

End to end probe packets


Adds to overhead

Add congestion info to packets as they cross nodes


Either backwards or forwards

Security
Increasingly important aspects
Data Confidentiality Data Integrity Data Availability Privacy

Mechanisms
Message authentication code (MAC) Passwords Digital signatures Encryption Perimeter security

Firewall Implementation
packet filter
Configurable specifies which packets can pass allows manager to specify addresses, protocol ports, and packet types

often part of router note: two packet filters and intermediate computer are required for optimal firewall

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