How Populations Evolve

Text Reading: Ch 10 & 11

Learning Objectives Explain the two major points of Charles Darwins theory of evolution. Describe how natural selection is more a process of editing than a process of creation. Explain how biological classification, the fossil record, biogeography, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, vestigial structures, and DNA similarities provide evidence of common descent.

Discuss the evidence that humans and great apes share a recent common ancestor.

What is Evolution?
Evolution: Change in the ____________________ ___________________of organisms that occurs over the course of generations. Evolutionary changes are inherited via genes. Other changes may take place because of environmental changes and are not necessarily evolutionary.

Persistent Pests: DDT-resistant mosquitoes

1960s, the WHO began a campaign to eradicate the mosquitoes that transmit malaria.
Used DDT, to which some mosquitoes have evolved resistance.

The Process of Evolution

Populations evolve, NOT individuals. The genetic makeup of a population ____________ _________________________________________. Mosquitoes and DDT example:
Individuals without a gene for resistance died Over time, the population changed to mostly resistant individuals Initially, the frequency of the DDT-resistant allele was low. Over time, it became more frequent.

Natural Selection Natural selection: in a population, individuals with certain heritable traits can _______________ ___________better than other individuals without these traits. Individuals with these traits leave _______ offspring than others. The offspring tend to have these traits that are favorable for that environment. Thus, over time the frequency of the favorable traits _____________ in the population.

Evolution by Natural Selection Examples of natural selection include

Pesticide resistance in cropeating insects. Antibiotic resistance in infectious bacteria Drug-resistant strains of HIV

Evolutionary Adaptation
The result of natural selection is evolutionary adaptation. Adaptation: an inherited characteristic that _______________ an organisms ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.

Evolutionary Adaptation
The result of natural selection is evolutionary adaptation. The Peppered Moth

Microevolution vs Macroevolution Microevolution: changes that occur within a species and the characteristics of a population. Easily observed, relatively non-controversial. Macroevolution: changes that occur, as a result of microevolution, over long periods of time and result in the origin of new species. Controversial among non-biologists.

The Theory of Common Descent All species present on earth today are descendents of a single common ancestor. All species represent the product of millions of years of accumulated evolutionary changes.
Organisms observed today Time (thousands of generations)

Evolution

Evolution

Common ancestor

Early Views of Evolution

Charles Darwin is considered to be the father of modern evolution. However, he did not invent the idea. Early philosophers debated whether species were fixed or changed over time.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.): species fixed, do not evolve
Judeo-Christian culture: fortified idea, Earth ~6,000 yrs old
Anaximander (611-546 B.C.): humans evolved from fish that had moved onto land

Early Views of Evolution (contd)

Jean Baptiste Lamarck (1809): Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
Organisms evolve by the process of adaptation All organisms had an innate, inner drive for perfectionism that led them to develop new characteristics Acquired characteristics could be passed on to offspring

Charles Darwin
Father of modern evolution (Darwinism)

Ideas shaped by
Voyage of the HMS Beagle
Employed as ships naturalist Collected thousands of specimens Observed various adaptations in organisms

Principles of Geology by Charles Lyell.

Postulated Earth was old and changes occurred over long periods of time

Darwin and the Voyage of the Beagle

December 1831, Darwin left Great Britain on the HMS Beagle

The Voyage of the Beagle (contd) Darwin intrigued by

Geographic distribution of organisms on the Galpagos Islands. Galpagos organisms resembled those in South America.

~600 mi

Galapagos Islands tortoises vary with their environments. Each island had tortoises, but each island had a different type.

He noted a similar pattern with iguanas. Each island had its own type, yet they had similarity to each other and to the ones on the mainland.

Darwin and The Origin of Species 1836, Returned to Great Britain but did not publish his ideas immediately.
1859, Published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection 1. Contemporary species were not created in their present form but evolved from ancestral species by modification over time (ie decent with modification). 2. Proposed a mechanism for evolution: NATURAL SELECTION

Darwins Theory of Natural Selection Based his theory of natural selection on 2 key observations:

Observation 1: Overproduction
All species tend to produce excessive numbers. This leads to a struggle for existence.

Observation 2: Individual variation

Variation exists among individuals in a population. Much of this variation is heritable.

Hypotheses on the Origin of Modern Organisms

(a) Static model Species arise separately and do not change over time. (b) Transformation Species arise separately but do change over time in order to adapt to the changing environment.

Time

(c) Separate types Species do change over time, and new species can arise; but each group of species derives from a separate ancestor that arose independently.

Difference in form

Time

(d) Common descent Species do change over time, and new species can arise. All species derive from a common ancestor.

Difference in form

Time

Difference in form

Time

Difference in form

Evidence of Evolution Several lines of biological evidence point to a common ancestor:

Biological classification Anatomical similarities between organism Shared developmental pathways Useless traits in modern species DNA and protein similarities Distribution of organisms on Earth (biogeography) Fossil evidence

Biological Classification Organisms classified into a hierarchy according to biological similarities Linnean classification:
Most inclusive groups
(share general characteristics)

Least inclusive groups

(share many detailed characteristics)

Anatomical Similarities between Organisms

Comparative anatomy: comparison of body structure ___________________________________________. Homology: similarity in structures due to common ancestry. Example: Mammalian forelimbs have the same set of bones. The underlying structure is similar despite the very different functions.
Humerus Radius and ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Bat Sea lion Lion Chimpanzee Human

Shared Developmental Pathways

Comparative embryology: comparison of structures that appear during _______________________________ ___________________________________________. Example: comparative embryology of vertebrates
Snake Chicken Possum Cat Bat Human Pharyngeal slits Tail Early embryo

Intermediate embryo

Late embryo

Useless Traits in Modern Species

Vestigial structures: rudimentary structures that do not have a function in modern species but were functioning in ancestral species.

Examples:
Boa-constrictors grow tiny hind legs

Duckbill platypuses grow and re-absorb teeth before birth

Human coccyx and prenatal tail Human appendix Human wisdom teeth

DNA and Protein Similarities

Evolutionary relationships can be determined by comparing ________________________________ of different organisms.

More closely related species have more similarity in DNA and protein sequences than more distantly related species.

Biogeography Biogeography: the study of the _____________ _______________________________ of species. Related species should be close to each other. Example: Different species of mockingbird found on Galapagos Islands all resemble another species found on the mainland.

Biogeography Continents were once all united

The Fossil Record Fossils: preserved remnants or impressions left by organisms that lived in the past.
Are often found in sedimentary rocks.

Fossil Evidence
Fossil record: ordered sequence of fossils as they appear in rock layers.
Reveals the appearance of organisms in a historical sequence. Contains transitional forms that link past and present.
Equus Merychippus 1 toe Hyracotherium (Eohippus) 4 toes Mesohippus 3 toes 3 toes

Horse ancestor 55

Modern horse 40 17 Millions of years ago 4

Humans and Apes Share a Common Ancestor The same lines of evidence that support common descent can be used to look for the closest relatives of humans. Are humans related to apes?

Biological Classification of Humans

Linnaean classification
Domain (Eukarya)

Kingdom (Animalia)

Phylum (Chordata)

Class (Mammalia)

Order (Primates)

Family (Hominidae)

Genus (Homo)

Species (Homo sapiens)

Biological Classification of Humans

Shared characteristics of humans and apes

Order Primates Family Hominidae Subfamily Homininae

Squirrel monkey

Orangutan

Gorilla

Common chimpanzee

Bonobo

Human

increase in size of genital structures delayed sexual maturity broad incisors shortened canine teeth enlarged brow ridges elongated skull reduced hairiness large brain no tail more erect posture increased flexibility of thumb

Mammal ancestor

DNA Similarities The DNA sequences of humans and great apes are highly similar

African monkey 96.66%

Gorilla 98.90%

Chimpanzee 99.01%

Human 99.9%

Anatomical and Developmental Similarities

Tail: Great apes and humans have tailbone (coccyx) but no tail Goose bumps: Arrector pili muscles at base of body hair cause hair to stand up when tensed. Appendix Wisdom teeth/ canine teeth

Anatomical Differences between Humans & Chimps Differences in the mode of locomotion explain many of the skeletal differences between humans and chimpanzees.
Chimpanzee Human Foramen magnum Base of skull

Back of skull

Pelvis Accommodate four-legged stance Modified for upright stance

Larger arms

Limbs relative to body

Larger legs

Feet Grasping Weight bearing

Biogeography and Fossil Evidence Darwin predicted that fossils of early human ancestors would be found in Africa, the home of modern great apes.

Early hominin fossils such as Lucy provide evidence that the earliest human ancestors arose in Africa.

Evolutionary Relationship between Fossil Hominins

Radiometric dating of fossils can be used to estimate the age of fossils. Fossils of oldest human ancestors 5-6 million years old. Correlates with molecular evidence of when chimps and humans diverged.

Trends in Human Evolution from the Fossil Record Larger brains Flatter face

Reduced jaw size, smaller teeth

Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus africanus Homo habilis Homo sapiens

Age of fossil as Ancient hominin determined by radiometric dating 3.5 (million years ago)

Modern hominin 2.8 1.7 0

Evolution Unites All of Biology Evolutionary theory impacts all aspects of modern biology. Important to understand it because it helps scientists grapple with modern issues.
Identifying function of human genes

Understanding species interactions

Predicting biological consequences of climate change