DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using the data. Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

Components Data Representation Data Flow
1.1

Data communications
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (program). Fundamental characteristics influence the effectiveness of a data communications system

1.2

Delivery Accuracy Timeliness Jitter

Components of data communications

Message:
Information (data) to be communicated(text, numbers, pictures, audio video).

Sender:
The device that sends the data message.(computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

Receiver:
The device that receives the data message.

Transmission medium:
The physical path by which a message travels, e.g., twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

Protocol:
A set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the communication devices.

1.3

Data representation
Text
In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or 1s). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding.

Numbers Images
RGB (red, green, blue) YCM (yellow, cyan, and magenta)

Audio Video
1.4

Data flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex Simplex
The communication is unidirectional, one-way).

Half-duplex
Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.

Full-duplex
Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

1.5

Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)

1.6

1-2 NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

1.7

Distributed processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Network Criteria
Performance
Throughput Delay

Reliability
Measured by the frequency of failure The time it takes a link to recover from a failure The network robustness in a catastrophe

Security

1.8

Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

multidrop
1.9

1
2

Definitions of the components/Keywords:

Binary data can be transmitted using a number of different

3
4 5

types of pulses. The choice of a particular pair of pulses to

represent the symbols 1 and 0 is called Line Coding.

1
2
Input Data

Master Layout 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1

3
Digital Signal

Step 1:

unipolar NRZ (Non Return to Zero)

Representation of 1

Representation of 0

3
4 5

Instruction for the animator The first fig should appear then the second fig should appear. In parallel to the figures the text should be displayed.

Text to be displayed in the working area (DT) Bit 0 is mapped to amplitude close to zero Bit 1 is mapped to a positive amplitude A DC component is present

Step 2:

Polar NRZ (Non Return to Zero)

Representation of 1

Representation of 0

3
4 5

Instruction for the animator The first fig should appear then the second fig should appear. In parallel to the figures the text should be displayed.

Text to be displayed in the working area (DT) Bit 0 is mapped to a negative amplitude Bit 1 is mapped to a positive amplitude A DC component is present

Step 3:

Polar RZ (Return to Zero)

Representation of 1

Representation of 0

3
4 5

Instruction for the animator The first fig should appear then the second fig should appear. In parallel to the figures the text should be displayed.

Text to be displayed in the working area (DT) A bit 0 is mapped to a negative amplitude A for the first half of the symbol duration followed by a zero amplitude for the second half of the symbol duration. A bit 1 is mapped to a positive amplitude +A for the first half of the bit duration followed by a zero amplitude for the second half of the bit duration.

Step 4:

NRZI (Non Return to Zero Inverted)

Representation of 1

Representation of 0

3
4 5

Fig. A
Instruction for the animator

Fig. B

Fig. C

Fig. D

Text to be displayed in the working area (DT) Bit 0 mapped to no signal level transition Bit 1 is mapped to signal level transition at the beginning of the bit interval Assumption: The signal level to the left of the bit is high Fig. A and Fig. C The signal level to the left of the bit is low Fig. B and Fig. D

The first fig should appear then the second fig should appear. In parallel to the figures the text should be displayed.

Step 5: Manchester coding

Representation of 0 Representation of 1

3
4 5

Instruction for the animator The first fig should appear then the second fig should appear. In parallel to the figures the text should be displayed.

Text to be displayed in the working area (DT) Bit 0 is sent by having a mid-bit transition from high to low. Bit 1 is sent by having a mid-bit transition from low to high.

Step 6:

Differential Manchester coding

Representation of 1

Representation of 0

2
Fig. A Fig. B Fig. C Fig. D

3
4 5

Instruction for the animator The first fig should appear then the second fig should appear. In parallel to the figures the text should be displayed.

Text to be displayed in the working area (DT) Bit 0 is mapped to signal level transition at the beginning of the bit interval. Bit 1 is mapped to absence of signal level transition at the beginning of the bit interval. Assumption: The signal level to the left of the bit is high Fig. A and Fig. C The signal level to the left of the bit is low Fig. B and Fig. D

Illustration of different line coding schemes

Assumption:

The signal level to the left of the bit is high

Line coding Scheme

Unipolar NRZ

Representation of 0

Representation of 1

Polar NRZ

Polar RZ

Line coding Scheme

NRZI

Representation of 0

Representation of 1

Manchester

Differential Manchester

Questionnaire
1. What is the Differential Manchester waveform corresponding to the bit string 1101101 Note: The signal level before the first bit is assumed to be high

Answers:
a)

4
5

b)

Questionnaire
2. What is the Differential Manchester waveform for the bit string 11100 Note: The signal level to the left of the first bit in the string is low

Answers:
a)

1
0 0

3
b)

4
5

Summary
Binary data can be transmitted using a number of different types of pulses. The choice of a particular pair of pulses to represent the symbols 1 and 0 is called Line Coding. Line coding is the process of converting binary data, a sequence of bits to a digital signal.

Synchronous - Asynchronous
Data Transmission

Asynchronous

The sender and receiver are not Synchronised. The sender sends only one character at a time.

Asynchronous

Each character needs a start bit and a stop bit. There can be idle time between each character.

Asynchronous

It is a slow and inefficient method of data transmission. It is an inexpensive method for low speed transmission.

Synchronous
The senders and the receivers clocks are synchronised. The sender sends a packet of data at a time. Synchronisationisachievedbysendingastart frameandastopframe.

Error Detection and Correction

Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication, error must be detected and corrected Error Detection and Correction are implemented either at the data link layer or the transport layer of the OSI model

10.1 Type of Errors

TypeofErrors(contd)
Single-Bit Error ~ is when only one bit in the data unit has changed (ex : ASCII STX - ASCII LF)

TypeofErrors(contd)
Multiple-Bit Error ~ is when two or more nonconsecutive bits in the data unit have changed(ex : ASCII B - ASCII LF)

TypeofErrors(contd)
Burst Error ~ means that 2 or more consecutive bits in the data unit have changed

10.2 Detection
Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for detecting errors at the destination

Detection(contd)
Redundancy

Detection(contd)
Detection methods

Detection(contd)
Parity Check A parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of 1s(including the parity bit) becomes even for even-parity check or odd for odd-parity check Simple parity check

Detection -examples

Example 1
Suppose the sender wants to send the word world. In ASCII the five characters are coded as

1110111 1101111 1110010 1101100 1100100

The following shows the actual bits sent
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001

Two Dimensional Parity Check

Detection(contd)
CRC(Cyclic Redundancy Check) ~ is based on binary division.

Detection(contd)
CRC generator
~ uses modular-2 division.

Binary Division in a CRC Generator

Detection(contd)
Binary Division in a CRC Checker

Detection(contd)
Checksum Generator

Detection(contd)
To create the checksum the sender does the following:
The unit is divided into K sections, each of n bits. Section1and2areaddedtogetherusingones complement. Section 3 is added to the result of the previous step. Section 4 is added to the result of the previous step. The process repeats until section k is added to the result of the previous step. The final result is complemented to make the checksum.

Detection(contd)
data unit and checksum

Detection(contd)

Detection(contd)
9.7 ( at a sender) Original data : 10101001 00111001 10101001 00111001 -------------11100010 Sum 00011101 Checksum 10101001 00111001 00011101

Detection(contd)
Example ( at a receiver) Received data : 10101001 00111001 00011101 10101001 00111001 00011101 --------------11111111 Sum 00000000 Complement

10.3 Error Correction

~ can be handled in two ways

when an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit. a receiver can use an error-correcting code, which automatically corrects certain errors.

ErrorCorrection(contd)
Single-Bit Error Correction
parity bit The secret of error correction is to locate the invalid bit or bits For ASCII code, it needs a three-bit redundancy code(000-111)

ErrorCorrection(contd)
Redundancy Bits ~ to calculate the number of redundancy bits (R) required to correct a given number of data bit (M)

ErrorCorrection(contd)
Relationship between data and redundancy bits
Number of Data Bits (m) Number of Redundancy Bits (r) Total Bits (m+r)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 3 3 3 4 4 4

3 5 6 7 9 10 11