INTRODUCTION

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Construction materials can be subdivided into two major categories namely

Structural materials Non-structural materials

As the name implies, structural materials are used for fabrication of structural element of a building namely slab, beams, columns and foundation.

INTRODUCTION
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Non-structural materials are used for fabrication of nonstructural element of a building namely brick walls, windows, doors, railings etc.

INTRODUCTION
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The evolution of materials for building structure

<2700 BC
Stabilized soil/mud block First pyramid designed by Imhotep

1500BC-500AD
Rock blocks, straws and timber Palace, Houses and city wall construction in China

500AD-1800AD
Fired bricks, clay tiles and timber

1900ADCurrent
Concrete and Steel

Future
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)

INTRODUCTION
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In the construction industry today, there are two common classes of structural materials.
Structural Materials Concrete Steel

CONCRETE
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Concrete is a composite material which consists of:

Cement Aggregate (Coarse and fine) Water Additives (superplasticizer, fly ash etc)

CONCRETE
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The main binder material which contribute to the strength properties of concrete is Portland Cement In a mass of concrete, the solidified Portland cement will hold the aggregates together to form a solid composite material

CONCRETE
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Portland Cement is originally a powder material but with the presence of water, it will undergo hydration to form a solid matrix that act as the main binder in concrete.

RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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The fabrication of concrete structural element involves the placement and compaction of fresh concrete mix within the structural formwork. Hence, the rheological (workability) properties of concrete is a major consideration to ensure proper placement and compaction of concrete mix within the formwork.

RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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The workability of concrete is described by the measured slump of concrete The European Standard EN206-1-2000 prescribed five classes of workability of concrete as follows. Slump class S1 (Low Workability) Slump in mm 10 - 40

S2 (Medium Workability)
S3(Medium-High Workability) S4(High Workability) S5 (Very High Workability)

50 - 90
100 160-210 220

RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Higher slump of fresh concrete indicates higher workability of the concrete mix. The degree of workability required is governed by the final application of the concrete mix.

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RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

High workability concrete is needed when:
The concrete mix has to be pumped to a great height (high rise construction) The steel reinforcements of a structural member is highly congested Other than above, low workability or medium workability concrete can be used

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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Concrete is an anisotropic material which has dual mechanical properties It has a very high load bearing capacity when subjected to compressive load.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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However, concrete is very weak when subjected to tension load. The tension strength of concrete is only approximately 10% of its compressive strength.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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The compressive strength of concrete is determined by crushing a hardened concrete cube of cylinder using compressive load The compressive strength of concrete, fcu, is defined as:
fcu=Ultimate compressive load/Cross sectional are of concrete

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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The compressive strength of concrete is measured in pressure unit MPa (Megapascal) The compressive strength of concrete increases with the duration lapsed from the date of cast.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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Under the classification of the Eurocode EC 2, concrete is graded with reference to its cylinder compressive strength and cube compressive strength For instance, concrete grade C20/25 has 28-days cylinder compressive strength of 20MPa and cube strength of 25MPa

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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The highest grade strength of concrete increases with advancement in concrete technology. For instance, the highest concrete compressive strength in the 1980s was only 60MPa. The highest grade strength today is 250MPa.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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In terms of elasticity, concrete is classified as a semi-elastic brittle composite material. Under compressive load, the longitudinal deformation of concrete varies linearly with the load up to certain strain.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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At the elastic deformation stage of concrete, the slope of the stress-strain curve is the Static Modulus of Elasticity for the concrete material.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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At higher strain level, the load no longer varies linearly with the longitudinal deformation. At this stage of deformation, the concrete deforms in a plastic manner.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

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When a concrete is subjected to compressive stress equal to its compressive strength, it will start to crack. On further loading, the concrete will be crushed in a brittle manner.

TESTING AND MEASUREMENT

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Slump test
Slump test is performed on fresh concrete mix sampled from the pre-mix concrete truck upon arrival at the construction site. Slump test is performed using the slump cone method prescribed in code of practice ASTM C143.

TESTING AND MEASUREMENT

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A batch of concrete which does not comply with the design slump will have to be rejected.

TESTING AND MEASUREMENT

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Compressive strength test

Performed on concrete cubes or cylinder specimens fabricated using the concrete mixed delivered at the site Normally done on concrete specimens cured in water for 28 days from the date of cast

TESTING AND MEASUREMENT

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Compressive strength test

Compressive strength test is performed at the site or testing institution as a measure of quality control Compressive strength test is performed based on the procedures described in ASTM C39

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STEEL
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The type of steel used for fabrication of structural members is a compound of approximately 98% iron and small percentage of carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphorus, sulphur, niobium and vanadium.

STEEL
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The increasing carbon content in steel increases strength and hardness of steel but reduces ductility and toughness. Hence, carbon content of steel is restricted to 0.20.25% to produce steel which is not brittle.

STEEL
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The niobium and vanadium are introduced to raise the yield strength of steel. Structural steel is impregnated with manganese to improve its corrosion resistance. Sulphur and phosphorus are impurities during extraction of iron from its ore.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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The properties of steel which is the most important in the design of steel structure or reinforced concrete structure is the tensile strength and Youngs modulus.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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The value of Youngs Modulus of Steel remains relatively constant at 210GPa for both strength grade of steel.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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The value of Youngs Modulus of Steel determines the stiffness of steel and is an essential design parameter used in the calculation of deflection of a steel member in flexure.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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Steel is an isotropic material whereby its tensile strength and compressive strength is similar.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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However, in most cases, the tension load capacity of steel is higher as compared to its compression load capacity. This is due to the tendency of buckling of steel when subjected to compressive load.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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The properties of steel which is the most important in the design of steel structure or reinforced concrete structure is the tensile strength and Youngs modulus.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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Yield strength of a steel is the internal stress level of a steel member in tension whereby the steel member ceases to behave elastically.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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The yield strength of steel is determined from the tensile strength test performed on steel specimen in the lab

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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In the industrial application, steel are graded based on its yield strength. For instance steel grade S450 is the type of steel which has yield strength of 450N/mm2

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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There are two common classes of steel for structural application

Mild steel (S235 or S250)

High strength grade steel (S450)

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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The Yield strength of high strength grade steel (S450) is defined as the stress corresponding to the intersection point between the stress strain curve of steel and a 0.2 % offset line drawn parallel with the elastic section of the stress strain curve.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL

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The Yield strength of low strength grade steel (S235) is defined as the stress corresponding to the point of the initiation of plastic deformation of the steel

CORROSION OF STEEL
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Corrosion of steel is a major problem of steel structural member or steel reinforcing bars. Surface corrosion of steel is a chemical reaction between iron, water and oxygen that produces rust.

CORROSION OF STEEL
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Surface corrosion of steel may result in the reduction of the effective cross section of steel member or steel reinforcement. This will affect the load bearing capacity of the steel structural member and steel reinforced concrete structure

CORROSION OF STEEL
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For industrial application three common measures taken to prevent corrosion of steel are:
Surface treatment of steel bars or steel members with a lead primer coating Encasing steel inside concrete matrix Zinc or aluminium thermal spray coating on the surface of steel
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Point of Interest
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Name of building: Ronan Point Place:East London Built: 1968 Demolished: 1986 Apparent cause of failure:
Gas stove explosion

Actual cause: Substandard Building materials

Presented by DR CHEAH CHEE BAN | SENIOR LECTURER SCHOOL OF HOUSING BUILDING AND PLANNING