T.K.

Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Chapters 1 & 2
Chapter -1
SEISMOLOGY
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Introduction

It is a big subject and mainly deals with

earthquake as a geological process.

However, some portions of seismology are

of great interest to earthquake engineers.

They include causes of earthquake, earthquake

waves, measurement of earthquake, effect of
soil condition on earthquake, earthquake pre-
diction and earthquake hazard analysis

Understanding of these topics help earthquake

engineers in dealing seismic effects on structures
in a better way.

Further knowledge of seismology is helpful in

describing earthquake inputs for structures where
enough recorded data is not available.
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Interiors of earth
1
8 4

kms to V
p
Lec-1/2

Before earthquake is looked as a geological

process, some knowledge about the structure of
earth is in order.
In-side the earth

Crust: 5-40 km;

M discontinuity; floating

Mantle: lithosphere (120 km);

asthenosphere-plastic
molten rock (200 km);
bottom- homogenous;
variation of v is less
(1000 km - 2900 km)

Core: discovered by Wichert &

Oldham; only P waves can
pass through inner core
(1290 km); very dense;
nickel & iron; outer core
(2200 km), same density;
2500
0
C; 4x10
6
atm;14 g/cm
3

Lithosphere floats as a cluster of plates with

different movements in different directions.
Fig 1.1
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Plate tectonics

At mid oceanic ridges, two

continents which were joined
together drifted apart due to
flow of hot mantle upward.

Flow takes place because of

convective circulation of
earth's mantle; energy comes
from radioactivity inside the
earth.

Hot material cools as it comes

up; additional crust is formed
which moves outward.
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Convective currents

Concept of plate tectonics evolved from

continental drift.
Fig 1.2
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...

New crust sinks beneath sea surface; spreading

continues until lithosphere reaches deep sea
trenches where subduction takes place.

Continental motions are associated with a variety

of circulation patterns.

As a result, motions take place through sliding of

lithosphere in pieces- called tectonic plates.

There are seven such major tectonic plates and

many smaller ones.

They move in different directions at different

speeds.
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...
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Fig 1.3
Major tectonic plates
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Three types of Inter plate interactions exist giving

three types of boundaries.
Contd...

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Tectonic plates pass each other at the transform

faults.
Fig 1.4
Types of interplate boundaries
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Faults at the plate boundaries are the likely

locations for earthquakes - inter plate earth-
quake.

Earthquakes occurring within the plate are

caused due to mutual slip of rock bed
releasing energy- intra plate earthquake.

Slip creates new faults, but faults are mainly

the causes rather than results of earthquake.

At the faults two different types of slipage

are observed- Dip slip; Strike slip.

In reality combination of the types of slipage

is observed at the fault line.
Contd...
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...

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Types of fault
Fig 1.5
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Causes of earthquake

There are many theories to explain causes of

earthquake.

Out of them, tectonic theory of earthquake is

popular.

The tectonic theory stipulates that movements

of tectonic plates relative to each other lead to
accumulation of stresses at the plate boundar-
ies & inside the plate.

This accumulation of stresses finally results in

inter plate or intra plate earthquakes.

In inter- plate earthquake the existing fault

lines are affected while intra-plate earthquake
new faults are created.
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...

During earthquake, slip takes place at the fault;

length over which slip takes place could be several
kilometres; earthquake origin is a point that moves
along the fault line.

Elastic rebound theory, put forward by Reid, gives

credence to earthquake caused by slip along
faults.

Large amplitude shearing displacement that took

place over a large length along the San andreas
fault led to elastic rebound theory.

Modelling of earthquake based on elastic rebound

theory is of two types:

Kinematic-time history of slip

Dynamic-shear crack and its growth

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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...
Fault Line
After earthquake
Direction of motion
Direction of motion
Road
Fault Line
Before Straining
Direction of motion
Direction of motion
Fault Line
Strained (Before earthquake)
Direction of motion
Direction of motion
Road
Lec-2/3
Fig 1.6
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd

An earthquake caused by slip at the fault proceeds in

the following way:

Owing to various slow tectonic activities,

strains accumulate at the fault over a long
time.

Large field of strain reaches limiting value at

some point of time.

Slip occurs due to crushing of rock& masses;

the strain is released, releasing vast energy
equivalent to blasting of several atom bombs.

Strained layers of rock masses bounces back

to its unstrained condition.
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...
Fault
Before slip
Rebound due to slip
Push and pull force
Double couple
Lec-2/5
Fig 1.7

Slip could be of any type-

dip, strike or mixed giving
rise to a push & pull forces
acting at the fault; slip
velocity at an active fault-10
to 100mm/year.

This situation is equivalent

to two pairs of coupled
forces suddenly acting and
thus, moving masses of
rock leading to radial
waves propagating in all
directions.
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd

Propagating wave is complex& is responsible

for creating displacement and acceleration of
soil/rock particle in the ground.

The majority of the waves travels through the

rocks within the crust and then passes through
the soil to the top surface.

Other theory of tectonic earthquake stipulates

that the earthquake occurs due to phase
changes of rock mass, accompanied by volume
changes in small volume of crust.

Those who favour this theory argues that

earthquakes do occur at greater depths
where faults do not exist.

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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Seismic waves

Large strain energy released during earthquake

propagates in all directions within earth as elastic
medium.

These waves, called seismic waves, transmit

energy from one point to the other & finally carry
it to the surface.

Within earth, waves travel in almost homogeno-

us elastic unbounded medium as body waves.

On the surface, they move as surface waves.

Reflection & refraction of waves take place near

the surface at every layer; as a result waves get
modified.
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...

Body waves are of two types- P & S waves;

S waves are also called transverse waves.

Waves propagation velocities are given by:

P waves arrive ahead of S waves at a point; time

interval is given by:

Polarized transverse waves are polarization of particl-

es either in vertical(SV) or in horizontal(SH) plane.
( ) ( )
( )
) 2 . 1 (
1 2
1
) 1 . 1 (
2 1 1
1
2 / 1 2 / 1
2 / 1
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

E G
E
s
p
) 3 . 1 (
1 1

,
_

p s
p
T

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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Surface waves are of two types - L waves

and R waves.

L waves: particles move in horizontal plane

perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation.

R waves:- particles move in vertical plane;

they trace a retrogate elliptical path; for
oceanic waves water particles undergo
similar elliptical motion in ellipsoid surface
as waves pass by.

L waves move faster than R waves on

the surface (R wave velocity ~0.9 )

Contd...
S
V
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Contd...
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Body & Surface waves
Fig 1.8
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

P& S waves change phases as PPP, PS, PPS

etc. after reflection & refraction at the surface.
Contd...
PS
P
S
S
SP
P
SS
PP
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Reflection at the earth surface
Fig 1.9
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Records of surface waves

Strong earthquake waves recorded on the surface

are irregular in nature.
P PP
S SS L

They can generally be classified in four groups:

Practically Single Shock: near source; on firm

ground; shallow earthquake.

Moderately long irregular: moderate distance

from source; on firm ground-elcentro earthquake.
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Typical strong motion record
Fig 1.10
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

A long ground motion with prevailing period:

filtered ground motion through soft soil,
medium- Loma Prieta earthquake.

Ground motion involving large Scale ground

Deformation: land slides, soil liquefaction-
Chilean & Alaska earthquakes.
Contd..
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Most ground motions are intermediate between

those described before (mixed).

Amongst them, nearly white noise type earth-

quake records ( having a variety of frequency
compositions are more frequent on firm ground ).
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
0.1
0.05
0.0
0.05
0.1
WEST
EAST
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
)
Time (sec)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2
(a)
Acceleration
Contd...
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Single Shock
1
0.0
1
WEST
EAST
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
c
m
)
Time (sec)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2
displacement
Fig 1.11
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd..
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
Time (sec)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
)
Acceleration
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Mixed frequency
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
Time (sec)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
c
m
)
Displacement
Fig 1.12
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd..
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
Time (sec)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
c
m
)
Displacement
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Time(sec)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
)
Acceleration
Predominant frequency
Fig 1.13
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

They refer to quantities by which size & energy

of earthquakes are described.

There are many measurement parameters; some

of them are directly measured; some are
indirectly derived from the measured ones.

There are many empirical relationships that are

developed to relate one parameter to the other.

Many of those empirical relationships and the

parameters are used as inputs for seismic
analysis of structures; so they are described
along with the seismic inputs.
Earthquake measurement parameters
Lec-3/1
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Here, mainly two most important parameters,

magnitude & intensity of earthquake are described
along with some terminologies.
Contd...

Most of the damaging earthquakes have

Epicentre
Epicentral Distance
Hypocentral Distance
Focal Depth
Focus/Hypocentre
Site

Limited region of earth

influenced by the focus
is called focal region ;
greater the size of
earthquake, greater is
the focal region.

shallow focal depth <70 km;

depths of foci >70 km are intermediate/deep.

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Earthquake definitions
Fig 1.14
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...

Force shocks are defined as those which occur

before the main shock.

After shocks are those which occur after the main

shock.

Magnitude of earthquake is a measure of energy

released by the earthquake and has the following
attributes:

is independent of place of observation.

is a function of measured maximum displace-

ments of ground at specified locations.

first developed by Waditi & Richter in 1935.

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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...

magnitude (M) scale is open ended.

M > 8.5 is rare; M < 2.5 is not perceptible.

there are many varieties of magnitude of

earthquake depending upon waves and
quantities being measured.

Local magnitude ( ), originally proposed by

Richter, is defined as log a (maximum amplitude
in microns); Wood Anderson seismograph:
R=100 km; magnification: 2800:
L
M
p
T = 0.8s : = 0.8
) 6 . 1 ( log 7 . 2 48 . 2 log + A M
L
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Since Wood Anderson seismograph is no more in

use, coda length ( T ), defined as total signal
duration, is used these days:

Body magnitude ( ) is proposed by Gutenberg

& Richter because of limitations of instrument &
distance problems associated with .

It is obtained from compression P waves with

periods in the range of 1s; first few cycles are

used;

Contd...
) 7 . 1 ( logT b a M
L
+
b
M
L
M
( ) ) 8 . 1 ( , log +

,
_

h Q
T
A
M
b
Lec-3/5
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Occasionally, long period instruments are used

for periods 5s-15s.

Surface magnitude ( ) was again proposed by

Gutenberg & Richter mainly for large
epicentral distance.

However, it may be used for any epicentral

distance & any seismograph can be used.

Praga formulation is used with surface wave

period of the order of 20s

A is amp of Rayleigh wave (20s); is in km.

s
M
Contd...
) 9 . 1 ( 0 . 2 log 66 . 1 log + +

,
_

T
A
M
s

Lec-3/6
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Seismic moment magnitude ( ) is a better

measure of large size earthquake with the help
of seismic moment.
A- area (m) ; U- longitudinal displacement(m);

G(3x10N/m).

Seismic Moment ( ) is measured from

seismographs using long period waves and
describes strain energy released from the entire
rupture surface.
w
M
Contd...
( 1.10)
o
M GUA
o
M
Lec-3/7

Kanamori designed a scale which relates to

.
w
M
o
M
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
M
L
M
s
M
s
M
JMA
M
B
M
L
M
b
M
~
M
W
Moment Magnitude M
w
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
) 11 . 1 ( 0 . 6 log
3
2
10

o w
M M
Lec-3/8
Fig 1.15
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Energy Release, E ( Joules ) is given by :

M(7.3) ~ 50 megaton nuclear explosion
M(7.2) releases 32 times more energy than
M(6.2)
M(8) releases 1000 times more energy than
M(6)

Some Empirical formulae [L (km); D/U(m);A(km

2
)]
Contd...
s
M
E
15 8 . 4
10
+

) 14 . 1 ( ) 42 . 0 ( 46 . 5 82 . 0
) 14 . 1 ( ) 24 . 0 ( 49 . 3 91 . 0
) 14 . 1 ( ) 22 . 0 ( 22 . 3 69 . 0
) 14 . 1 ( 27 . 4 ) log 32 . 1 (
) 13 . 1 ( 65 . 5 ) log 98 . 0 (
d M LogD
c M LogA
b M LogL
a U M
L M
LogD w
LogA w
LogL w



+
+

Lec-3/9
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Intensity is a subjective measure of earthquake;

human feeling; effects on structures; damages.

Many Intensity scales exist in different parts of the

world; some old ones:

Gastaldi Scale (1564)

Pignafaro Scale(1783)

Rossi- forel Scale(1883)

Mercalli Cancani Sieberg scale is still in use

in
western Europe.

Modified Mercalli Scale (12 grade) is widely

used
now.

Contd...
Lec-3/10
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...
Lec-3/11
Intensity Evaluation Description
Magnitude
(Richter Scale)
I Insignificant Only detected by instruments 1- 1.9
II Very Light
Only felt by sensitive persons; oscillation of
hanging objects
2 2.9
III Light Small vibratory motion 3 3.9
IV Moderate
Felt inside building; noise produced by
moving objects
4 4.9
V Slightly Strong
Felt by most persons; some panic; minor
damages
VI Strong
Damage to non-seismic resistance
structures
5 5.9
VII Very Strong
People running; some damages in seismic
resistant structures and serious damage to
un-reinforced masonry structures
VIII Destructive Serious damage to structures in general
IX Ruinous
Serious damage to well built structures;
almost total destruction of non-seismic
resistant structures
6 6.9
X Disastrous
Only seismic resistant structures remain
standing
7 7.9
XI
Disastrous in
Extreme
General panic; almost total destruction; the
ground cracks and opens
XII Catastrophic Total destruction 8 8.9
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

There have been attempts to relate subjective

intensity with the measured magnitude resulting
in several empirical equations:

Other important earthquake measurement

parameters are PGA, PGV, PGD.

PGA is more common & is related to magnitude

by various attenuation laws (described in seismic
inputs).
Contd...
max
1.3 0.6 (1.15)
8.16 1.45 2.46ln (1.16)
1.44 ( ) (1.17)
s
M I
I M r
I M f r
+
+
+
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Measurement of earthquake

Principle of operation is based on the oscillation of a

pendulum.

Lec-4/1
Sensor : mass; string;
magnet &
support
Recorder : drum; pen;
chart paper
Amp : optical / electro-
magnetic means
Damp : electromagnetic/
fluid dampers
Fig 1.16
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
u
Horizontal pendulum
Vertical pendulum
u
Contd...
Lec-4/2
Fig 1.17
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Equation of motion of the bob is

If T very large (Long period seismograph)

If T very small (short period seismograph)

If T very close to & 2k very Large

g
T
Contd...
2
2 (1.18) x kx w x u + +
&& && &&
) 19 . 1 ( u x or u x
) 20 . 1 (
2
u x or u x w


(1.21) x u or x u
& && &
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd..
N
S
Horseshoe Magnet
Suspension
Copper Mass
Mirror
Light Beam

copper cylinder
2mm / 25mm /
0.7g

taut wire 0.02

mm

reflection of beam
magnified by 2800

electro - magnetic
damping 0.8
Lec-4/4
Wood Anderson Seismograph
Fig 1.18
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Commonly used seismograph measures

earthquake within 0.5-30 seconds.

Strong motion seismograph has the following

characteristics:
Contd..

period & damping of the pick

up of 0.06- 25cps ;

preset acceleration 0.005g;

sensitivity 0.001-1.0g;

average starting time 0.05-0.1s.

Lec-4/5
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Local Soil condition may have significant influence

on ground motions.

Most of seismic energy at a site travels upward

through soil from the crust/rock bed below in the
form of S/P waves.

In the process, amplitude, frequency contents &

duration of earthquake get changed.

The extent depends upon geological, geographical

and geotechnical conditions.

Most influencing factors are properties of the

soil and topography.
Modification of ground motion
Lec-4/6
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Analysis of collected data revealed interesting

features of soil modification:
Contd...

Attenuation of ground motion through rock

bed is significant 0.03g-350km (M=8.1).

For very soft soil, predominant period of

ground motion changes to soil period; for
rock bed PGA 0.03g (AF=5).

Duration increases also for soft soil.

Over a loose sandy soil underlying by

mud, AF=3 for 0.035g-0.05g (at rock bed).

The shape of the response spectrum

becomes narrow banded for soft soil.
Lec-4/7
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...

As PGA at the rock bed increases, AF

decreases.

For strong ground shaking, PGA amplification is

low because of hysteretic behaviour of soil.

At the crest of narrow rocky ridge, increased

amplification occurs; AF 2/ ( theoretical
analysis ).

At the central region of basin, ID wave propagation

analysis is valid; near the sides of the valley, 2D
analysis is to be carried out.

1D, 2D or 3D wave propagation analysis is carried

out to find PGA amplification theoretically.
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Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Seismic hazard analysis

It is a quantitative estimation of most possible

ground shaking at a site.

The estimate can be made using deterministic

or probabilistic approaches; they require
some/all of the following:
Knowledge of earthquake sources, fault activity,
fault rupture length.
Past earthquake data giving the relationship
between rupture length & magnitude.
Historical & Instrumentally recorded ground
motion.

Possible ground shaking may be represented

by PGA, PGV, PGD or response spectrum
ordinates.
Lec-4/9
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Deterministic Hazard Analysis (DSHA):

A simple procedure to compute ground
motion to be used for safe design of
speciality structures.
Restricted only when sufficient data is
not available to carry out PSHA.
It is conservative and does not provide
likely hood of failure.
It can be used for deterministic design of
structures.
It is quiet often used for microzonation of
large cities for seismic disaster mitigation.
Contd
Lec-4/10
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd
) 25 ln( 80 . 1 859 . 0 74 . 6 PGA(gals) ln + + r m
Lec-4/11

It consists of following 5 steps:

Identification of sources including their geometry.
Evaluation of shortest epicentral distance / hypo
central distance.
Identification of maximum likely magnitude at
each source.
Selection of the predictive relationship valid for
the region.
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Example 1.1 :
Maximum magnitudes for
sources 1, 2 and 3 are 7.5,
6.8 and 5 respectively.
Contd
(-50, 75)
Source 1
(-15, -30)
(-10, 78)
(30, 52)
(0, 0)
Source 3
Source 2
Site
Sources of earthquake
near the site (Examp. 1.1)
Source m r(km) PGA
1 7.5 23.70 0.490 g
2 6.8 60.04 0.10 g
3 5.0 78.63 0.015 g
Hazard level is 0.49g for the site
Lec-4/12
Fig 1.19
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Probabilistic seismic hazard analysis (PSHA).

It predicts the probability of occurrence of a

certain level of ground shaking at a site by
considering uncertainties of:

Size of earthquake
Location
Rate of occurrence of earthquake
Predictive relationship
Contd
Lec-5/1
PSHA is carried out in 4 steps.
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Step 1 consists of following:

Identification & characterization of
source probabilistically.
Assumes uniform distribution of point
of earthquake in the source zone .
Computation of distribution of r
considering all points of earthquake as
potential source.
Contd
Lec-5/2

2 step consists of following:

Determination of the average rate at
which an earthquake of a particular size
will be exceeded using G-R recurrence
law.
) 23 . 1 ( ) exp( 10 a m
bm a
m


Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Using the above recurrence law & specifying

maximum & minimum values of M, following
pdf of M can be derived (ref. book)

3rd step consists of the following:

A predictive relationship is used to obtain
seismic parameter of interest (say PGA) for
given values of m , r .
Contd
) 26 . 1 (
)] ( [ exp 1
)] ( [ exp
) (
0 max
0
m m
m m
m f
M

Lec-5/3
Uncertainty of the relationship is considered
by assuming PGA to be log normally distributed;
the relationship provides the mean value; a
standard deviation is specified.
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd
Lec-5/4

4th step consists of the following:

Combines uncertainties of location, size
& predictive relationship by
A seismic hazard curve is plotted as
(say is PGA level ).
) 27 . 1 ( ) ( ) ( ] , | [
1

>

dr dm r f m f r m y Y P
Ri Mi
N
i
i y
S

y vs
y

By including temporal uncertainty of earthquake

(uncertainty of time) in PSHA & assuming it to be a
Poisson process, probability of exceedance of the
value of , of the seismic parameter in T years
is given by (ref. book)
y
[ ] 1 (1.28 )
y
T
t
P y y e d

>
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Example 1.2 :
For the site shown in Fig 1.20,
show a typical calculation for
PSHA ( use Equation 1.22
with = 0.57)
Contd
(-50,75)
Source 1
(-15,-30)
(0,0)
Source 3
Source 2
Site
(5,80)
(25,75)
(125,75)
(125,15)
(25,15)
Source Recurrence Law Mo Mu
Source 1 4 7.7
Source 2 4 5
Source 3 4 7.3
m
m
4 log
m
m
2 . 1 51 . 4 log
m
m
8 . 0 3 log
Lec-5/5
Fig 1.20
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Solution:
Location Uncertainty

1st source
Line is divided in 1000 segments

2nd source
Area is divided in 2500 parts (2x 1.2)
min
min
90.12
23.72( interval ( ) 10)
r km
r divide n

) 10 ( 32 . 30
98 . 145
min
max

n r
km r
Contd
Lec-5/6
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

3rd source :
min max
r r r
Contd
0.0
0.4
2
7
.
0
4
3
3
.
6
8
4
0
.
3
2
4
9
.
9
6
5
3
.
6
0
6
0
.
2
4
6
6
.
8
8
7
3
.
5
2
8
0
.
1
6
8
6
.
8
0
P
[
R
=
r
]
Epicentral distance, r (km)
0.0
0.2
3
6
.
1
0
4
7
.
6
7
5
9
.
2
4
7
0
.
8
1
8
2
.
3
8
9
3
.
9
5
1
0
5
.
5
2
1
1
7
.
0
9
1
2
8
.
6
6
1
4
0
.
2
3
P
[
R
=
r
]
Epicentral distance, r (km)
0.0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
P
[
R
=
r
]
Epicentral distance, r (km)
1.0
Lec-5/7
Fig 1.21
Fig 1.23
Fig 1.22
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Size Uncertainty :

631 . 0 10
501 . 0 10
1 10
4 8 . 0 3
3
4 2 . 1 5 . 4
2
4 1 4
1

Contd
) 29 . 1 ( ) (
2
) ( ] [
1 2
2 1
2
1
2 1
a m m
m m
f
dm m f m m m P
m
m
m
M

,
_

< <

Lec-5/8
For each source zone
For source zone 1, m
u
and m
0
are divided in 10
divisions.
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Histogram of M for each source zone are shown

Contd
0.0
0.8
Magnitude, m
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.6
P
[
M
=
m
]
4
.
8
3
7
.
1
4
4
.
1
7
4
.
5
0
5
.
1
6
5
.
4
9
5
.
8
2
6
.
1
5
6
.
4
8
6
.
8 1
0.0
0.8
4
.
0
5
4
.
1
5
4
.
2
5
4
.
3
5
4
.
4
5
4
.
5
5
4
.
6
5
4
.
7
5
4
.
8
5
4
.
9
5
Magnitude, m
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
P
[
M
=
m
]
0.0
0.8
Magnitude, m
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.6
P
[
M
=
m
]
4
.
8
3
7
.
1
4
4
.
1
7
4
.
5
0
5
.
1
6
5
.
4
9
5
.
8
2
6
.
1
5
6
.
4
8
6
.
8
1
Lec-5/9
Fig 1.24
Fig 1.25
Fig 1.26
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Say, Probability of exceedance of 0.01g is desired

for m = 4.19, r = 27.04 km for source zone1
The above probability is given as

Contd..
[ ]
951 . 0 ) ( 1
65 . 1
) ( 1 04 . 27 , 19 . 4 | 01 . 0


>
Z F
z
Z F r m g PGA P
z
z
[ ]
[ ] [ ] 176 . 0 04 . 27 19 . 4
04 . 27 , 19 . 4 | 01 . 0
04 . 27 & 19 . 4
1 01 . 0
01 . 0

>

r P m P
r m g PGA P
is r m for
g
g

Lec-5/10
[ ]
[ ] 336 . 0 04 . 27
551 . 0 19 . 4


r P
m P
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

For different levels of PGA, similar values of

can be obtained.

Plot of vs. PGA gives the seismic hazard

curve.

Contd...

for other 99 combinations of m & r can

obtained & summed up; for source zones 2 & 3,
similar exercise can be done; finally,
0.01g

3 01 . 0 2 01 . 0 1 01 . 0 01 . 0
| | |
sour g sour g sour g g
+ +
Lec-5/11
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd
Lec-5/12
Example-1.3:
The seismic hazard curve for a region shows that the annual
rate of exceedance of an acceleration 0.25g due to
earthquakes (event) is 0.02.What is the prob. that exactly
one one such event and at least one such event will take
place in 30 years? Also, find that has a 10% prob. of
exceedance
in 50 yrs.
Solution:

Equation 1.28c (book) can be written as
% 2 . 45 1 ) 1 ( ) (
% 33 30 02 . 0 ) 1 ( ) (
30 02 . 0
30 02 . 0




e N P ii
e te N P i
t

[ ] [ ]
0021 . 0
50
1 . 0 1 ln ) 1 ( 1 ln

t
N P

Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Seismic risk at a site is similar to that of seismic

hazard determined for a site.

It is defined as:
P( ) during a certain period (usually 1
year).
Inverse of risk becomes return period for .

The study of seismic risk requires:

Source mechanism parameters focal depth;
orientation of faults etc.
Recurrence relationship which is used to find

PDF.
Attenuation Relationships.
s i
x x
i
x
Seismic risk at a site
Lec-5/13
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Using the above Information, seismic risk can

be calculated with the help of either Cornell's
approach or Milne & Davenport approach.

Using the concept, many empirical equations are

obtained with the help of data / information
for regions.

For a particular region, these empirical

equations are developed; for other regions, they
may be use by choosing appropriate values for
the parameters.

Some equations are given in the following

Many others are given in the book.

Contd..
Lec-5/14
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...
[ ]
( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
1 1
1
1.54
1
( )
1 1 1
( )
1 1
( )
1
( ) ( / ) (1.30)
exp exp ( ) (1.32 )
l n (1.32 )
47 (1.33)
1
( ) | (1.37)
1
1 ( ) (1.38)
1 (1.39)
o
s
u o
s
o
p
s s
o
i
s
m M
M s o u
m M
s M
m M
s
N Y Y c
p m a
T b
P I i e
e
F m P M m M m M
e
P M m F m
P M m e

1

]

Lec-5/15
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Microzonation using hazard analysis
Lec-5/16
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...
Lec-5/17
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd...
Lec-5/18
0.35 g
0.1 g
0.25 g
0.4 g
Deterministic Microzonation
Probability of exceedance = 0.1
0.15 g
0.4 g
0.25 g
0.2 g
0.1 g
0.3 g
Probabilistic Microzonation
Fig 1.27
Seismology
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Lec-1/74
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Chapter -2
SEISMIC INPUTS
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Seismic inputs

Various forms of Seismic inputs are used for

earthquake analysis of structures.

The the form in which the input is provided depends

upon the type of analysis at hand.

In addition, some earthquake parameters such

as magnitude, PGA, duration, predominant
frequency etc. may be required.

The input data may be provided in time domain

or in frequency domain or in both.

Further,the input data may be required in

deterministic or in probabilistic form.

Predictive relationships for different earthquake

parameters are also required in seismic risk
analysis.
1/1
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Time history records

The most common way to describe ground motion is

by way of time history records.

The records may be for displacement, velocity

and acceleration; acceleration is generally directly
measured; others are derived quantities.

Raw measured data is not used as inputs; data

processing is needed. It includes

Removal of noises by filters

Baseline correction

Removal of instrumental error

Conversion from A to D

At any measuring station, ground motions are

recorded in 3 orthogonal directions; one is vertical.
1/2
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

They can be transformed to principal directions;

major direction is the direction of wave propagation;
the other two are accordingly defined.

Stochastically, ground motions in principal

directions are uncorrelated.
Contd..
(a) major (horizontal)
Major (horizontal)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
)
Time (sec)

Fig 2.1(a)
1/3
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd..
1/4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
Time (sec)

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
)
Minor (horizontal)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
Time (sec)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
I
o
n

(g
)
Minor (vertical)
Fig 2.1(b)
Fig 2.1(c)
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Because of the complex phenomena involved in

the generation of ground motion, trains of ground
motion recorded at different stations vary spatially.

For homogeneous field of ground motion, rms / peak

values remain the same at two stations but there is
a time lag between the two records.

For nonhomogeneous field, both time lag & difference

in rms exist.

Because of the spatial variation of ground motion,

both rotational & torsional components of ground
motions are generated.
Contd..
1/5
du dv
( t ) = + ( 2.1)
dy dx
dw
( t ) = ( 2.2)
dx
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

In addition, an angle of incidence of ground motion

may also be defined for the time history record.
Contd..
1/6
Major direction
x
y
=Angle of incidence
Fig 2.2
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Frequency contents of time history

Fourier synthesis of time history record provides

frequency contents of ground motion.

It provides useful information about the ground motion

& also forms the input for frequency domain analysis of
structure.

Fourier series expansion of x(t) can be given as

a
0 n n n n
n=1
T/2
0
-T/2
T/2
n n
-T/2
T/2
n n
-T/2
n
x( t ) =a + a cos t + b sin t ( 2.3)
1
a = x( t ) dt ( 2.4)
T
2
a = x( t ) cos tdt ( 2.5)
T
2
b = x( t ) sin tdt ( 2.6)
T
=2n/T ( 2.7)
1/7
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

The amplitude of the harmonic at is given by

(2.8)
1
1
]
1
1
]

2
T/2
2 2 2
n n n n
-T/2
2
T/2
n
-T/2
2
A =a + b = x( t ) cos tdt
T
2
+ x( t ) sin tdt
T
Contd..
n

1/8
_

,
n n
-1
n
n
n
c =A
b
=tan ( 2.10)
a

Equation 2.3 can also be represented in the form

0 n n n
n=1
x( t ) = c + c sin( t + ) ( 2.9)
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Plot of c
n
with is called Fourier Amplitude Spectrum.

The integration in Eq. 2.8 is now efficiently performed by

FFT algorithm which treats fourier synthesis problem as
a pair of fourier integrals in complex domain.

Standard input for FFT is N sampled ordinates of time

history at an interval of t.

Output is N complex numbers; first N/2+1 complex

quantities provide frequency contents of time history
other half is complex conjugate of the first half.
Contd..
n

-i t
-

i t
-
1
x( i) = x( t ) e dt ( 2.11)
2
x( t ) = x( i) e d ( 2.12)
1/9
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

is called Nyquest Frequency.

Fourier amplitude spectrum provides a

good understanding of the characteristics of
ground motion. Spectrums are shown in Fig 2.3.

For under standing general nature of spectra, like

those shown in Fig 2.3, spectra of ground
accelerations of many earthquakes are
averaged & smoothed for a particular site.
j
n
2j
=
T
= N/T
Contd..
( )
_


,
1/2
2 2
j j j
j -1
j
j
N
A = a + b j =0,....., ( 2.13)
2
b
=tan ( 2.14)
a
1/10
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
1/11
Contd..
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
frequency (rad/sec)
F
o
u
r
i
e
r

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
g
-
s
e
c
)
1.4
Narrow band
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
x 10
-3
Frequency (rad/sec)
O
r
d
i
n
a
t
e

F
o
u
r
i
e
r

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
g
-
s
e
c
)
Broad band
Fig 2.3(a)
Fig 2.3(b)
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

The resulting spectrum plotted on log scale shows:

Amplitudes tend to be largest at an intermediate

range of frequency.
Bounding frequencies are f
c
& f
max
.
f
c
is inversely proportional to duration.

For frequency domain analysis, frequency contents

given by FFT provide a better input.
Contd..
1/12
Frequency (log scale)
f
c
f
max
O
r
d
i
n
a
t
e

F
o
u
r
i
e
r

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
l
o
g

s
c
a
l
e
)
Fig 2.4
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Example2.1: 32 sampled values at t = 0.02s are
given as input to FFT as shown in Fig 2.5
YY = 1/16 fft(y,32)


9.81
n
n
= = 157.07 rad/s
T
2
d = = rad/s
T
Contd..
2/1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
Time (sec)
G
r
o
u
n
d

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
)
Fig 2.5
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd..
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Frequnecy (rad/sec)
R
e
a
l

p
a
r
t
A
Real part
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
-0.2
-0.15
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
Frequency (rad/sec)
I
m
a
g
i
n
a
r
y

p
a
r
t
A
Imaginary part
2/2
Fig 2.6a
Fig 2.6b
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
2 2 1/2
i i i
-1
i
i i n
i
A =( a + b ) i =0....N/2
b
j =tan =( 0..dw...w )
a

Fourier amplitude spectrum is A
i
V
s
plot & phase
spectrum is
i
V
s
plot as shown in Fig 2.7
Contd..
2/3
i

Amplitude spectrum
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
Frequency (rad/sec)
F
o
u
r
i
e
r

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
g
-
s
e
c
)
Fig 2.7a
Phase spectrum
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Frequency (rad/sec)
P
h
a
s
e

(
r
a
d
)
Fig 2.7b
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Power spectral density function

Power spectral density function (PSDF) of ground

motion is a popular seismic input for probabilistic
seismic analysis of structures.

It is defined as the distribution of the expected mean

square value of the ground motion with frequency.

Expected value is a common way of describing

probabilistically a ground motion parameter & is
connected to a stochastic process.

The characteristics of a stochastic process is described

later in chapter 4; one type of stochastic process is
called ergodic process.

For an ergodic process, a single time history of the

ensemble represents the ensemble characteristics ;
ensemble r.m.s is equal to that of the time history.
2/4
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

If future earthquake is assumed as an ergodic

process, then PSDF of future ground motion (say
acceleration) may be derived using the concept of
fourier synthesis.

Meansquare value of an acceleration time history a(t)

using Parsavals theorem.

PSDF of a(t) is defined as

Hence,

Contd..

N/2
2
n
0
1
= c ( 2.16)
2

N/2
n
n=0
0
= S( ) d = g( ) ( 2.17)
2
n
n
c
S() = & g( ) = S( ) d ( 2.18)
2d
2/5
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

A close relationship between PSDF & Fourier

amplitude spectrum is evident from Eqn. 2.18.

A typical PSDF of ground acceleration is shown

in Fig 2.8.
Contd..
2/6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Frequency (rad/sec)
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

P
S
D
F

o
r
d
i
n
a
t
e
Fig 2.8
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Some of the important ground motion parameters

are described using the moments of PSDF.

is called central frequency denoting concentration

of frequencies of the PSDF.
The mean peak accln.(PGA) is defined using , , T
d.

Predominant frequency / period is where PSDF /

Fourier spectrum peaks.

n
n
0
2
0
= S( ) d ( 2.19a)

= ( 2.19b)

_

,
&&
d
gmax
0
2.8T
u = 2 ln ( 2.19c)
2
Contd..
2/7
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

An additional input is needed for probabilistic

dynamic analysis of spatially long structures that
have multi support excitations.

The time lag or lack of correlation between excitations at

different supports is represented by a coherence
function & a cross PSDF.

The cross PSDF between two excitations which is

needed for the analysis of such structures is given by


Contd..
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 1
2 2
x x x x 1 2
1 1
2 2
x x x x 1 2 x 1 2
S =S S coh( x ,x ,) ( 2.20)
S =S S coh( x ,x ,) =S coh( x ,x ,) ( 2.21)
2/8

More discussions on cross PSDF is given later

in chapter 4.
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Records of actual strong

motion records show that
mean square value of the
process is not stationary
but evolutionary.


Contd..
2
S(,t ) = q( t ) S( ) ( 2.22)
2/9
Time(sec)

a
c
c

(
m
/
s
e
c
2
)

The earthquake process is better modeled as

uniformly modulated stationary process in which
PSDF varies with time as:

From the collection of records ,various predictive

relation- ships for cross PSDF, Fourier spectrum,
modulating functions have been derived; they are
given later.
Fig 2.9
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Example2.2: For the time history of Example 2.1, find
PSDF.
Solution: Using Eqns 2.9, 2.16, 2.18 ordinates of PSDF
are obtained. Raw and smoothed PSDFs are shown in
Figs 2.10 & 2.11


Contd..
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
1
2
3
4
x 10
-6
Frequency (rad/sec)
P
S
D
F

(
g
2
s
e
c
/
r
a
d
)
Fig 2.10
2/10
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Sum of areas of bar = 0.011 (m/s

2
)
2

Area under smoothed PSDF = 0.0113 (m/s

2
)
2

Meansquare value of time history = 0.0112 (m/s

2
)
2
0 50 100 150
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
x 10
-6
Frequency (rad/sec)
P
S
D
F

(
g
2

s
e
c
/
r
a
d
)

Three point averaging(curve fit)
Three point averaging
Five point averaging
Five point averaging(curve fit)
Contd..
Fig 2.11
2/11
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Response spectrum of earthquake is the most

favored seismic input for earthquake engineers.

There are a number of response spectra used to

define ground motion; displacement, pseudo
velocity, absolute acceleration & energy.

The spectra show the frequency contents of ground

motion but not directly as Fourier spectrum does.

Displacement spectrum forms the basis for

deriving other spectra.

It is defined as the plot of maximum displacement of

an SDOF system to a particular earthquake as a
function of & .

Relative displacement of an SDOF for a given is
given by (3rd chapter):


Response spectrum
n

&&
g
x( t )
3/1
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

At the maximum value of displacement, KE = 0 &

hence,

If this energy were expressed as KE, then an

equivalent velocity of the system would be



Contd..
1
1
]

&&
&&
n
n
t
-( t-)
g d
n 0
v
m d
n
t
-( t-)
v g d
0
max
1
x( t ) =- x() e sin( t- ) d ( 2.23)

S
x =S = ( 2.24a)

S = x() e sin( t- ) d ( 2.24b)

2
d
1
E= kS ( 2.25a)
2
&
&
2 2
eq d
eq n d
1 1
mx = kS ( 2.25b)
2 2
x = S ( 2.25c)
3/2
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Thus, x
eq
= S
v
; this velocity is called pseudo velocity &
is different from the actual maximum velocity.
Plots of S
d
& S
v
over the full range of frequency & a
damping ratio are displacement & pseudo velocity
response spectrums.

A closely related spectrum called pseudo acceleration

spectrum (spectral acceleration) is defined as:

Maximum force developed in the spring of the SDOF is

Thus, spectral acceleration multiplied by the mass

provides the maximum spring force.
Contd..
2
a n d
S = S ( 2.26)
( )
2
s d n d a
max
f =kS =m S =mS ( 2.27)
3/3
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd..

This observation shows importance of the spectral

acceleration.

While displacement response spectrum is the plot of

maximum displacement, plots of pseudo velocity and
acceleration are not so.

These three response spectra provide directly

some physically meaningful quantities:

Displacement Maximum deformation

Pseudo velocity Peak SE

Pseudo acceleration Peak force

Energy response spectrum is the plot of

against a full range of frequency for a specified
damping ratio; it shows the energy cotents of the
ground motion at different frequencies.
max
2E( t)
m
3/4
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

At any instant of time t, it may be shown that

For = 0, it may further easily be shown that

Comparing Eqns.(2.8) & (2.30), it is seen that Fourier

spectrum & energy spectrum have similar forms.

Fourier amplitude spectrum may be viewed as a

measure of the total energy at the end (t = T) of an
undamped SDOF.


Contd..
1
1
1
]
]
&
1
2 2
2
n
2E( t )
= x( t ) +( x( t ) ) ( 2.29)
m

1 1 1

' ) 1 1 1
] ] ]


&& &&
1
2 2
2
t t
g n g d
0 0
2E( t )
= x() cos d + x( ) sin d ( 2.30)
m
3/5
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Example2.3: Draw the spectrums for El Centro
acceleration for = 0.05
Solution: Using Eqns 2.23 - 2.30, the spectrums are
drawn & are shown in Figs. 2.13 2.15

Tp(Energy) = 0.55 s
Tp(Fourier) = 0.58 s
Tp(Acceleration) = 0.51s


Contd..
3/6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0
0.8
1.6
2.4
3.2
4
Time period (sec)
E
n
e
r
g
y

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

(
g
-
s
e
c
)
Fig 2.13
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
3/7
Contd..
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
Frequency (rad/sec)
F
o
u
r
i
e
r

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
g
-
s
e
c
)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Time period (Sec)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
e
s
p
o
n
s
e

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

(
g
)
Fig 2.15
Fig 2.14
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
D-V-A Spectrum

All three response spectra are useful in defining the

design response spectrum discussed later.

A combined plot of the three spectra is thus

desirable & can be constructed because of the
relationship that exists between them

Some limiting conditions should be realised as T

0 & T .

The following conditions (physical) help in plotting

the spectrum.


d v n
a v n
logS =logS - log ( 2.31)
logS =logS + log ( 2.32)
&&
d gmax
T
a gmax
T0
limS =u ( 3.33)
limS =u ( 3.34)
3/8
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Fig 2.16
3/9
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Fig 2.17
3/10
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

The response spectrum of El Centro earthquake is

idealised by a series of straight lines.

Straight lines below a & between points b & c are

parallel to S
d
axis.
Those below f & between d & e are parallel to S
a
axis.

Below a shows constant ; below f shows

constant .

Between b & c constant ; between d & e

constant .

Left of c is directly related to maximum acceleration;

right of d is directly related to maximum displacement.

Intermediate portion cd is directly related to maximum

velocity of ground motion & most sensitive to
damping ratio.

Contd..
3/11
&&
a g
S = u
d g
S = u
&&
a a gmax
S = u
d d gmax
S = u
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Response spectrum of many earthquakes show

similar trend when idealised.

This observation led to the construction of

design response spectrum using straight lines
which is of greater importance than response
spectrum of an earthquake.
Example2.4: Draw the RSP for Park field earthquake
for & compare it with El Centro earthquake
Solution: Using Eqns. 2.23-2.26, the spectra are
obtained & drawn in tripartite plot; it is idealized by
straight lines; Fig 2.18 shows Parkfields & El Centro
RSPs. Comparison of T
a
to T
f
between the two is
shown in the book.



Contd..
% 5
3/12
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Fig 2.18
Table 2.1 Comparison of periods between Parkfield
and El Centro earthquakes
3/13

(s)

(s)

(s)

(s)

(s)

(s)
Park field 0.041 0.134 0.436 4.120 12.0 32.0
El Centro 0.030 0.125 0.349 3.135 10.0 33.0
( )
a f
T T
a
T
b
T
c
T
d
T
e
T
f
T
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Design response spectrum should satisfy some

requirements since it is intended to be used for safe
design of structures (book-2.5.4)

Spectrum should be as smooth as possible.

Design spectrum should be representative of

spectra of past ground motions.

Two response spectra should be considered to

cater to variations & design philosophy.

It should be normalized with respect to PGA.

Cunstruction of Design Spectrum

Expected PGA values for design & maximum

probable earthquakes are derived for the region.

Peak values of ground velocity & displacement

are obtained as:

Design RSP
3/14
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
c
1
= 1.22 to 0.92 m/s c
2
= 6

Plot baseline in four way log paper.

Obtain bc, de & cd by using

c & d points are fixed; so T
c
is known.
T
b
T
c
/4 ; T
a
T
c
/10; T
e
10 to 15 s; T
f
30 to 35 s

Take from ref(4) given in the book.

S
a
/g may be plotted in ordinary paper.
Contd..
3/15
&& &
&
&&
2
gmax gmax
gmax 1 gmax 2
gmax
u u
u =c ; u =c
g u
&& &
a gmax d gmax v gmax
u ; u ; u
a d v
, &
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Fig 2.19
3/16
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 20 30 50 70 100
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.007
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
1
2
3
4
5
7
10
a
T
b
T
c
T
d
T
e
T
f
T
D
i
s
p
.
(
m
)
P
s
e
u
d
o

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
(
m
/
s
e
c
)
2
A
c
c
.
(
m
/
s
e
c
)

m
v g
u

m
g
u
m
D
g
u

m
g
u

m
A
g
u

m
g
u
Peak groundacceleration,
velocityanddisplacement
Elastic design spectra
Time period(sec)
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Fig 2.20
3/17
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Time period (sec)
S
a
/
g


Hard soil
Medium soil
Soft soil
Time Period (sec)
P
s
e
u
d
o
-
a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
g
)
Design spectrum for site
Medium-sized earthquake at small
epicentral distance
Large size earthquake at large epicentral distance
Fig 2.21
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Example2.5: Construct design spectra for the 50th
percentile & 84.1 percentile in Tripartite plot.
Solution: T
a
= 1/33s; T
b
= 1/8s; T
e
= 10s; T
f
= 33s

A
, = 2.17(2.71) ;
V
= 1.65(2.30)

D
=1.39(2.01)
For 5 % damping;

Values within bracket are for 84.1 percentile
spectrum.
Plots are shown in Fig 2.22.
Contd..
& &&
-1
g g
2
g
1.22
u = u =0.732 ms
g
( 0.732)
u = =0.546m
0.6g
&&
g
u =0.6g
3/18
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
3/19
Contd..
50
th

84
th

Fig 2.22
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Design Earthquake; many different descriptions of

the level of severity of ground motions are available.

Contd..

MCE Largest earthquake from a source

SSE Used for NP design

Other terms denoting similar levels of

earthquake are, credible, safety level
maximum etc & are upper limits for two
level concept.

Lower level is called as OBE; other

terminologies are operating level,
probable design & strength level.

OBE SSE
3/20
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Site specific spectra are exclusively used for the

design of structures for the site.

It is constructed using recorded earthquake data in

& around the site.

If needed, earthquake data is augmented by

earthquake records of similar geological &
geographical regions.

Earthquake records are scaled for uniformity &

then modified for local soil condition.

Averaged & smoothed response spectra obtained

from the records are used as site specific spectra.
( book 2.5.7.1 & Example 2.6).

The effect of appropriate soil condition may have to

be incorporated by de-convolution and convolution
as shown in Fig 2.23.


Site specific spectra
4/1
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd..
4/2
Fig 2.23
Rock outcroping motion
C
C
Soil profile at
site of interest
convolution
E
Surface motion at
site of interest Surface motion
Deconvolution
Given soil
profile
B
bedrock motion
A
D
Bedrock motion
same as point B
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Statiscal analysis of available spectrum is performed

to find distributions of PGA & spectral ordinate at
each period.

From these distributions, values of spectral

ordinates with specified probability of exceedance
are used to construct the uniform hazard spectra.

Alternatively, seismic hazard analysis is carried

out with spectral ordinate (at each period for a given
) as parameter (not PGA).

From these hazard curves, uniform hazard spectrum

for a given probability of exceedance can be
constructed. An example problem is solved in the
book in order to illustrate the concept. These curves
are used for probabilistic design of structures (book
- Example 2.7).


Uniform hazard spectra
4/3
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

For many cases, response spectrum or PSDF

compatible time history records are required as
inputs for analysis.

One such case is nonlinear analysis of structures

for future earthquakes.

Response spectrum compatible ground motion

is generated by iteration to match a specified
spectrum; iteration starts by generating a set
of Gaussian random numbers.

Many standard programs are now available to

obtain response spectrum compatible time histories;
brief steps are given in the book (2.6.1).

Generation of time history for a given PSDF

essentially follows Monte Carlo simulation.



Synthetic accelerograms
4/4
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

By considering the time history as a summation

of sinusoids having random phase differences,
the time history is generated.

Relationship between discussed

before is used to find amplitudes of the
sinusoids (book 2.6.2).

Random phase angle, uniformly distributed

between , is used to find

Generation of partially correlated ground

motions at a number of points having the same
PSDF is somewhat involved & is given in ref(6).





Contd..
n
c &Sd
4/5
0 -2
i

i i i
i
a( t ) = Asin(t + ) ( 2.39)
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Many seismic input parameters & ground motion

parameters are directly available from recorded
data; many are obtained using empirical
relationships.

These empirical relationships are not only used

for predicting future earthquake parameters but also
are extensively used where scanty data are
available.

Predictive relationships generally express the

seismic parameters as a function of M, R, S
i
( or
any other parameter).

They are developed based on certain considerations.

Prediction of seismic input parameters
( )
i
Y =f M, R, S ( 2.40)

The parameters are approximately log

normally distributed.
4/6
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

Decrease in wave amplitude with distance bears

an inverse relationship.

Energy absorption due to material damping

causes amplitudes to decrease exponentially.

Effective epicentral distance is greater than R.

The mean value of the parameter is obtained

from the predictive relationship; a standard
deviation is specified.

Probability of exceedance is given by:

p is defined by



Contd..
[ ] ( )
1
P YY =1 - F p ( 2.41)
( )
1
lnY
lnY - lnY
p = ( 2.42)

4/7
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi

lnY is the mean value ( in ln ) of the parameter.

Many predictive relationships, laws &

empirical equations exist; most widely used ones
are given in the book.

Predictive relationships for different seismic

parameters given in the book include.


Contd..

Predictive relationships for PGA , PHA & PHV.

(Eqns: 2.43 2.57).

Predictive relationships for duration (Eqn 2.58).

Predictive relationships for arms(Eqns2.59

2.62)

Predictive relationship for Fourier & response

spectra (Eqns 2.63 2.68).
4/8
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd..

Predictive relationships for PSDF (Eqns: 2.69

2.80).

Predictive relationships for modulating

function (Eqn 2.22) given in Eqns 2.81 2.89
and Figs. 2.47 2.50

Predictive relationships for coherence

function (Eqns 2.90 2.99).
Example 2.8:Compare between the values of PHA & PHV
calculated by different empirical equations
for M=7; r=75 & 120 km .Note that PHA denotes generally
peak ground acceleration and PHV refers to peak ground
Velocity.
4/9
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
4/10
Contd..
Empirical Relationship PHA(g)
75 km 120 km
Esteva (Equation 2.43) 0.034 0.015
Cambell (Equation 2.44) 0.056 0.035
Bozorgina(Equation 2.45) 0.030 0.015
Toro(Equation 2.46) 0.072 0.037
Trifunac(Equation 2.54) 0.198 0.088
Empirical Relationship
PHV(cm/s)
75 km 120 km
Esteva (Equation 2.49) 8.535 4.161
Joyner (Equation 2.56) 4.785 2.285
Rosenblueth (Equation 2.50) 2.021 1.715
Table 2.3: Comparison of PHAs obtained by different empirical equations for M=7
Table 2.4: Comparison of PHVs obtained by different empirical equations for M=7
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Example 2.9: Compare between the smoothed
normalized Fourier spectrum obtained from El Centro
earthquake & that given by McGuire et al. (Eqn 2.68)
Solution: Assume and
; comparison
is shown in Fig 2.45.
Contd..
4/11
Hz f Hz f
c
10 ; 2 . 0
max

km R M ms V
w s
100 ; 7 ; 1500
1


0
M
7
w
M
is calculated
using Eqn 1.11 as
35.4 is selected
so that it matches El
Centro earthquake.
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
Frequency (Hz)
F
o
u
r
i
e
r

a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
c
m
/
s
e
c
)

Elcentro
Equation (2.60)
Fig 2.45
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Example 2.10: Compare between normalized
spectrums obtained by IBC, Euro-8, IS 1893 and that
given by Boore et al. (Eq.2.66) for M=7; R=50 km &
V
s
= 400 m/s.
Solution: Values of b
1
, to b
6
are taken from
Table3.9(book); G
c
= 0; PGA=0.35g (obtained)
Comparison is shown in Fig 2.46
4/12
Contd..
Fig 2.46
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Time period (sec)
S
a
/
g


Boore
IS Code
Euro Code
IBC Code
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi
Contd..
Example 2.11: Compare between the shapes of PSDFs of
ground acceleration given by Housner & Jennings (Eqn.
2.70); Newmark & Resenbleuth (Eqn 2.71); Kanai and
Tazimi(Eqns 2.72-2.73) & Clough & Penziene (Eqns 2.74-
2.75)
Solution: All constant multipliers are removed from the
equations to compare the shapes; comparison
is shown in Fig 2.47.
4/13
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
Frequency (rad/sec)
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

P
S
D
F

o
f

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

Housner and Jennings
Newmark and Rousenblueth
Kanai Tazimi
Clough and Penzien
Fig 2.47
Seismic Input
T.K. Datta

Department Of Civil Engineering, IIT
Delhi