Building A Network: Requirements

Connectivity

Corporate networks Internet (scalability) Links , Nodes and Clouds Circuit Switched: establishes the dedicated circuit across a sequence of links Packet Switched : store and forward Addressing Routing

Circuit Switching: FDMA and TDMA

Example: FDMA

4 users

frequency time TDMA

frequency time

Building A Network: Cost Effective Resource Sharing

Key requirement for computer networks is efficiency (Packet switching is the choice) A node when connected can send message to any other node at network What if all nodes want to exchange messages at same time ANS : Multiplexing

Packet Switching: Statistical Multiplexing

A
B
10 Mbs Ethernet

statistical multiplexing
1.5 Mbs

queue of packets waiting for output link

Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern statistical multiplexing.

The ISO/OSI Reference Model

Source: Computer Networks, Andrew Tanenbaum

ISO: International Standards Organization OSI: Open Systems Interconnection

Application The protocol stack:
The idea behind the model: Break up the design to make implementation simpler. Each layer has a well-defined function. Layers pass to one another only the information that is relevant at each level. Communication happens only between adjacent layers.

Presentation Session

Transport
Network Data link Physical

The Layers in the ISO/OSI RF Model

Physical: Transmit raw bits over the medium. Data Link: Implements the abstraction of an error free medium (handle losses, duplication, errors, flow control). Network: Routing.

Transport: Break up data into chunks, send them down the protocol stack, receive chunks, put them in the right order, pass them up.
Session: Establish connections between different users and different hosts. Presentation: Handle syntax and semantics of the info, such as encoding, encrypting. Application: Protocols commonly needed by applications (cddb, http, ftp, telnet, etc).

Encapsulation
sender
data

Application
Presentation Session Transport Network

AH

data data data data data

PH
SH TH NH DH

Data link
Physical

data
BITS

DT

Communication Between Layers in Different Hosts

End host End host

Application

Application

Presentation

Presentation

One or more nodes within the network.

Session Session

Transport

Transport

Network

Network

Network

Network

Data link

Data link

Data link

Data link

Phy sical

Phy sical

Phy sical

Phy sical

One or more nodes within the network

The Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Source: The TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Behrouz A. Forouzan

Application Presentation Session FTP HTTP DNS NFS

Transport
ICMP IGMP

TCP

UDP

Network

IP
ARP RARP

Data link Physical

Layering: logical communication

Each layer: distributed entities implement layer functions at each node entities perform actions, exchange messages with peers
application transport network link physical application transport network link physical network link physical

application transport network link physical

application transport network link physical

Layering: logical communication

E.g.: transport

take data from app add addressing, reliability check info to form datagram send datagram to peer wait for peer to ack receipt analogy: post office

data application transport transport network link physical application transport network link physical
ack data network link physical data application transport transport network link physical

application transport network link physical

Layering: physical communication

data application transport network link physical application transport network link physical network link physical data application transport network link physical

application transport network link physical

Layering: physical communication

data application transport network link physical
application transport network link physical application transport network link physical network link physical
Switching link Hub physical

data application transport network link physical

Protocol layering and data

Each layer takes data from above adds header information to create new data unit passes new data unit to layer below
source destination application Ht transport Hn Ht network link Hl Hn Ht physical
M M M M M Ht M Hn Ht M Hl Hn Ht M

application transport network link physical

message
segment datagram frame

Building A Network: Performance

Key requirement for computer networks is efficiency (Packet switching is the choice) A node when connected can send message to any other node at network What if all nodes want to exchange messages at same time ANS : Multiplexing

Building A Network: Performance

Bandwidth: number of bits per time unit.
(a) 1

(b) 1

We can talk about bandwidth at the physical level, but we can also talk about logical process-to-process bandwidth.

Latency: time taken for a message to travel from one end of the network to the other.
Again, we can consider a single-link or an end-to-end channel.

Latency
Latency Propagation Transmit Queue Propagation Distance / Speed of light

Transmit Size / Bandwidth

2.0 10 8 m / s in a fiber Speed of light 2.3 10 8 m / s in a cable 3.0 10 8 m / s in a vaccum

Delay x Bandwidth
Delay

Bandwidth

This product is analogous to the volume of a pipe or the number of bits it holds. It corresponds to how many bits the sender must transmit before the first bit arrives at the receiver.

Delay may be thought of as one-way latency or round-trip time (RTT) depending on the context.

Throughput

Throughput Transfer size / Transfer t ime

(effective end-to-end throughput)

Transfer t ime RTT 1/Bandwidth Transfersize

Jitter
Interpacket gap 4 Packet source 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 Packet sink

Network

Jitter is a variation (somewhat random) of the latency from packet to packet. Jitter is most often observed when packets traverse multiple hops from source to destination.

Direct Link Networks Network Node

Memory: getting larger and larger, but never infinitely so. Processor: Moores law still holds for speed (memory latency improves much slower, however). On a typical networked application, one must keep in mind the computation to communication ratio.
CPU

Cache

Network adaptor

(To network)

I/O bus Memory

Spectrum

f(Hz) 10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

12

10

14

10 UV

16

10

18

10

20

10

22

10

24

Radio

Microwav e

Inf rared

X ray

Gamma ray

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

11

10

12

10

13

10

14

10

15

10

16

Satellite Coax AM FM TV Terrestrial microwav e

Fiber optics

Encoding NRZ (Non-Return to Zero)

Signalling component Signal Node Adaptor Bits Adaptor Node

NRZ: Encode 0s and 1s using two different levels. Problem 1: The signal is synchronous; that is, theres a reference clock marking the length of each bit.
Bits 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

NRZ

Problem 2: Separating 0s from 1s is not trivial.

NRZI and Manchester Encoding

Bits NRZ Clock Manchester NRZI 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0

Clock recovery depends on transitions. To keep clocks in sync, the more transitions the better; too few and clocks will drift. NRZI: Encode 1s using transitions; 0s keep current level. Manchester: low to high signals a 0, high to low signals a 1.

Summary

NRZ: Clock recovery is problem. NRZI: 0s have no transitions and thus they wont help with clock recovery. Manchester: Doubles the rate of transitions making clock recovery easier, on the other hand, it doubles the rate of transitions. Since there are 2 transitions for every single bit, the efficiency (information per unit of time) drops by 50%.

4B/5B Encoding
Basic idea: Insert extra bits into the stream to break up long sequences of 0s and 1s. Doesnt allow more than one leading 0 and no more than two trailing 0s.
4 bits

5 bits

4B/5B Encoding
4-bit Data Symbol 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001 1010 1011 5-bit Code 11110 01001 10100 10101 01010 01011 01110 01111 10010 10011 10110 10111

24 16 25 32
16 codes are left over and some can be used for purposes other than encoding data. For instance: 11111 = idle line

00000 = dead line

00100 = halt 7 codes violate the one leading 0, two trailing 0s rule.

1100
1101 1110 1111

11010
11011 11100 11101

Framing
Bits Node A Adaptor Adaptor Node B

Frames

Problem description: A sequence of bits is sent from node A to node B over a point-to-point link. The network adaptor on node B must recognize exactly what set of bits constitutes a frame, that is, it must determine where the frame begins and ends.

Protocol Headers
Data Link Header IP Header TCP Header
Trailer

Pre DA SA 0800h version H L

Ether Type

6 TCP Header Data FCS

1: Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) 2: Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) 6: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) 17: User Datagram Protocol (UDP) 89: Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Protocol

0x0800 Internet Protocol, Version 4 (IPv4) 0x0806 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) 0x8100 IEEE 802.1Q-tagged frame 0x86DD Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) 0x8847 MPLS unicast 0x8848 MPLS multicast