Chapter 3

3-1
ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

3 Fluid Statics

3 Fluid Statics
3-2
3 Fluid Statics
3.1 Introduction / Motivation
3.2 Pressure
3.2.1 Pressure at a Point
3.3 Variation of Pressure with Depth
3.3.1 Hydrostatic Pressure in Liquids
3.3.2 Hydrostatic Pressure in Gases
3.4 Measurement of Pressure and Manometry
3.4.1 Barometer
3.4.2 U-Tube Manometer
3.4.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer
3.5 Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Submerged Surfaces
3.5.1 Magnitude of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
3.5.2 Direction of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
3.5.3 Line of Action of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
3 Fluid Statics
3-3
3 Fluid Statics
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3.1 Determination of y
P
3.5.3.2 Determination of x
P
3.5.4 Centroidal Coordinates and Moments of Area
3.6 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Submerged Surfaces
3.6.1 Horizontal Component
3.6.2 Vertical Component
3.7 Buoyancy
3.7.1 Physical Explanation for Origin of Buoyancy
Force
3.7.2 Buoyancy Force on Submerged Bodies
3.7.3 Buoyancy Force on Floating Bodies
3.8 Stability
3.8.1 Notion of Stability
3.8.2 Stability of Submerged Bodies
3.8.3 Stability of Floating Bodies
3-4
3 Fluid Statics
Learning Objectives
To understand:
The concept of pressure & how it varies in a fluid at rest
How to calculate & measure pressure with manometers
The concept of buoyancy
How to calculate forces on plane and curved surfaces,
including buoyancy forces
How to calculate the stability of floating objects
How to calculate forces and pressures in many
typical static fluid mechanics problems
3-5
3 Fluid Statics
Fluid statics fluids at rest
Hydrostatics liquids
Aerostatics gases
Fluid statics
no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers
no relative motion between fluid and solid surface
no shear (tangential) stresses
Recall: u = 0, or constant
everywhere
only normal stresses force exerted on fluid at rest is
normal to surface at point of contact
Normal stress is the pressure
Fluid statics pressure variation only due to weight of
fluid involves gravity fields and gravitational
acceleration g
0 du dy t q = =
3-6
3 Fluid Statics
Applications / significance of fluid statics:
Pressure distribution in atmosphere and oceans
Design of manometer pressure measuring
instruments
Forces on submerged plane (flat) and curved
surfaces
Design of water dams, liquid storage tanks
Buoyancy forces acting on floating or submerged
bodies
Stability analysis of floating and submerged bodies
3-7
3 Fluid Statics

KEY IDEA: Pressure is normal force on a fluid per unit
area
normal stress
SI units: N/m
2
or Pa
Standard atmospheric pressure 101.33 kPa

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician &
philosopher, did the early experiments with
barometer, and based on these, suggested that the
pressure remains constant throughout a static fluid,
and independent of the shape or cross section of the
container (Pascal Principle)

Together with Fermat, Pascal also puts the theory of
probability on firm foundation (Pascals triangle)

Unit of pressure is named after him: 1 Pa = 1N/1m
2

3.2 Pressure
1623-1662
3-8
3 Fluid Statics
KEY IDEA: Absolute pressure (P
abs
)
actual pressure at a given point
measured relative to absolute vacuum (absolute zero
pressure)
cannot be negative

KEY IDEA: Gage pressure (P
gage
)
Difference between
absolute pressure
and local atmospheric
pressure

P
gage
= P
abs
- P
atm

3.2 Pressure
3-9
3 Fluid Statics
KEY IDEA: Vacuum pressure (P
vac
)
Used when absolute pressure falls below atmospheric
pressure
Negative gage pressure
P
vac
= P
atm
- P
abs

3.2 Pressure
3-10
3 Fluid Statics

Pressure at any point
in a fluid is the same
in all directions

Pressure is a scalar
quantity: it has a
magnitude, but not a
specific direction

Consider wedge-
shaped fluid element
of unit length (into
page) in equilibrium
3-11
3 Fluid Statics
Mean pressures at three surfaces are P
1
, P
2
and P
3

Newtons second law force balance in x- and z-
directions:

From geometry:

0
x x
F ma = =
1 3
sin 0 P z Pl u A =
0
z z
F ma = =
2 3
co 0
2
s
1
P x Pl g x z u A A A =
cos x l u A =
sin z l u A =
weight of fluid element
(3.2.1)
(3.2.2)
(3.2.3)
(3.2.4)
3-12
3 Fluid Statics
Substituting (3.2.3) and (3.2.4) into (3.2.1) and (3.2.2)
yields:

last term in (3.2.6) goes to zero wedge
becomes infinitesimal fluid element shrinks to a point

Combining the above results,

regardless of value of

KEY IDEA: Pressure at a point in a fluid
has the same magnitude in all directions
0 z A
1 2 3
P P P P = = =
(3.2.7)
1 3
0 P P =
2 3
1
0
2
P P g z A =
(3.2.5)
(3.2.6)
3-13
3 Fluid Statics
Consider a rectangular fluid element of height z, length
x, and unit depth (into page) in equilibrium:
3-14
3 Fluid Statics
Force balance in vertical z-direction:

In the limit as :

KEY IDEA:

Negative sign pressure in a static fluid increases with
depth
0
z z
F ma = =
( )
0 P x P P x g x z A + A A A A =
0 P g z A + A =
0 z A
dP
g
dz
=
(3.3.1)
0 P x g x z A A A A =
3-15
3 Fluid Statics
3-16
3 Fluid Statics
Assume incompressible fluid = constant

Integrating (3.3.1) between two points with elevations z
1

and z
2
:

KEY IDEA: Easier to remember:

where is the absolute difference in depth between
the two points of interest
( )
2 2
1 1
2 1 2 1
P z
P z
dP g dz
P P g z z
=
=
} }
top
bottom
P P g z = + A
z A
(3.3.2)
(3.3.3)
3-17
3 Fluid Statics
KEY IDEA: Pressure in a fluid is independent of shape or
cross section of container
Except for small diameter tubes where surface
tension effects become significant

KEY IDEA: Pressures changes with vertical distance
(depth), but remains constant in other directions

KEY IDEA: Pressure is the same at all points on a
horizontal plane in a given fluid

KEY IDEA: Pascals law If a continuous line can be
drawn through the same fluid from point 1 to point 2,

P
1
= P
2
if z
1
= z
2

3-18
3 Fluid Statics
Same pressures at A, B, C, D, E, F and G since they are
at the same depth and they are interconnected by same
fluid
H and I pressures different since these 2 points
cannot be interconnected by the same fluid, even though
they are at same depth
3-19
3 Fluid Statics
Pressure force exerted by fluid always normal to surface
at specified points
Multiple immiscible fluids of different densities stacked
on top of one another:
1 1 1 2 2 3 3 atm
P P gh gh gh = + + +
3-20
3 Fluid Statics
In summary:

KEY IDEA: Pressure change across fluid column of
height h is

KEY IDEA: Pressure increases downward with depth in
a given fluid P
bottom
> P
top

KEY IDEA: Pascals law 2 points at same elevation in
a continuous fluid at rest are at the same pressure

KEY IDEA: Pressure is constant across a flat fluid-fluid
interface

gh P = A
3-21
3 Fluid Statics
Gases are compressible = constant appreciable
changes in gas density with changes in pressure and
temperature
Assume ideal gas law equation of state:

where P : absolute pressure
R : gas constant
T : absolute temperature
Substituting (3.3.4) into (3.3.1):

Separating the variables:

Assume isothermal conditions T = T
0
= constant:

3.3.2 Hydrostatic Pressure in Gases
RT P =
dP gP
dz RT
=
} }
= =
2
1
2
1
1
2
ln
z
z
P
P
T
dz
R
g
P
P
P
dP
( )
(

=
0
1 2
1 2
exp
RT
z z g
P P
(3.3.4)
(3.3.5)
(3.3.6)
3-22
3 Fluid Statics
Earths Standard Atmosphere

Example 3.1
3-23
3 Fluid Statics
In the troposphere (from sea-level (z = 0) to z =11 km),
temperature variation is of the form

where T
1
= 288.16 K = 15C (temperature at sea-level)
| = 0.00650 K/m (lapse rate)
From (3.3.7):
Using (3.3.5):

Substituting (3.3.8) into (3.3.5) and integrating:
Example 3.1
1
T T z | =
dz dT | =
RT
gP
dz
dP
=
RT
gP
dT
dP
= |
dP g dT
P R T |
=
(3.3.7)
(3.3.8)
(3.3.5)
3-24
3 Fluid Statics
At z = 0, P = P
1
= 101.33 kPa, T = T
1
. Hence

where for air

In the stratosphere (from z = 11 km to z = 20.1 km),
T = T
0
= constant = -56.5C
Pressure distribution is given by (3.3.6)
Example 3.1
} }
=
T
T
P
P
T
dT
R
g
P
dP
1 1
|
|
|
R
g
T
T
T
T
R
g
P
P
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
1 1 1
ln ln ln
|
|
R
g
T
z T
P
P
|
|
.
|
\
|

=
1
1
1
ln ln
|
|
R
g
T
z
P P
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
1
1
5.26
g
R|
=
(3.3.9)
3-25
3 Fluid Statics
Barometer used for measuring
atmospheric pressure
A tube is filled with mercury and
inverted while submerged in a
reservoir

Mercury has a very low vapor
pressure of 0.16 Pa at room
temperature of 20C near-
vacuum in closed upper end
P
C
~ 0
Force balance in vertical direction:
3.4 Measurement of Pressure and Manometry
B atm
P P =
atm
P gh =
3.4.1 Barometer
Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647)
3-26
3 Fluid Statics
At sea-level, with P
atm
= 101.33 kPa, and
Hg
= 13,595
kg/m
3
, barometric height is h = 0.76 m
A water barometer would be 10.3 m high
Length and cross-sectional area of tube have no effect
on h, provided tube diameter is sufficiently large to avoid
surface tension (capillary) effects:
3.4.1 Barometer
3-27
3 Fluid Statics
Manometers vertical or inclined liquid columns for
measuring pressure differences

Simple open U-tube manometer for measuring P
A
in a
closed chamber relative to atmospheric pressure P
atm
,
i.e. gage pressure
3-28
3 Fluid Statics
Begin at A move down to level z
1
(add )
jump across fluid 2 to the same pressure P
1
move up
to level z
2
(subtract ):

Another approach:
apply (3.3.2) repeatedly, jumping across at equal
pressures when we come to a continuous mass of
same fluid:
g z A
1 1 2 1 2 2 A A atm
P g z z g z z P P = ~ +
( ) ( )
1 1 2 2 1 2 A A
P g z z g z z P + =
( ) ( )
2 1 1 2 1 2 A A
P P g z z g z z =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 1 1 2
1 1 2 1 2
A A
A
P P P P P P
g z z g z z
= +
=
g z A
3-29
3 Fluid Statics
Multiple-fluid manometer
Find pressure difference between chambers A and B
Solution:

Example 2.2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 4 3
A B
A B
P P P P P P P P
g z z g z z g z z g z z
= + + +
=
A B
P P
3-30
3 Fluid Statics
To measure small pressure differences
1 1 3 3 2 2
sin
A B
P gh P gh gl u + = + +
2 2 3 3 1 1
sin
A B
P P gl gh gh u = +
3 3 1 1
2
2
sin
A B
P P gh gh
l
g

u
+
=

3-31
3 Fluid Statics
For a given pressure difference, differential reading l
2
of
inclined-tube manometer can be increased over that
obtained with conventional manometer by factor

Make small differential reading along inclined tube
becomes large for small pressure differences

1 sinu
3-32
3 Fluid Statics
On a plane surface, hydrostatic forces form a system of
parallel forces need to determine
Magnitude of resultant hydrostatic force
Point of application of resultant hydrostatic force
(center of pressure)
Consider the top flat,
arbitrary shape surface,
completely submerged in
a liquid
Plane surface lies in xy-
plane, making an angle of
with the horizontal free
surface
x-axis is the line of
intersection of plane
surface with horizontal
free surface
z-axis passes through O
and is normal to plane
surface

3-33
3 Fluid Statics
Aim: to find resultant force
and its line of action
3-34
3 Fluid Statics
Absolute pressure at any general point on the plate:

where h: vertical distance of the point from free surface
y: distance of point from x-axis (from point O)
Hydrostatic force acting on differential area dA:

Resultant hydrostatic force
acting on surface:
0
P P gh = +
0
sin P P gy u = +
dF PdA =
( )
0
sin dF P gy dA u = +
R
A A
F dF PdA = =
} }
( )
0
sin
R
A
F P gy dA u = +
}
0
sin
R
A
F P A g ydA u = +
}
3-35
3 Fluid Statics
But first moment of area

where y
C
is the y-coordinate of the centroid (or geometric
center) of the surface
Substituting,

where

is the vertical distance of the centroid C from the free
surface of the liquid and
C
A
ydA y A =
}
( )
0
sin
R C
F P A g y A u = +
( )
0
sin
R C
F P gy A u = +
( )
0 R C
F P gh A = +
R C
F P A =
sin
C C
h y u =
(3.5.3)
(3.5.2)
(3.5.1)
3-36
3 Fluid Statics

is the pressure at the centroid C of the surface, which is
equivalent to the average pressure on the surface.

Hence,

KEY IDEA: The magnitude of the resultant force acting
on a plane surface of a completely submerged plate in a
homogeneous (constant density) fluid is equal to the
product of the pressure P
C
at the centroid of the surface
and the area A of the surface

0 C C
P P gh = +
R C ave
F P A P A = =
3-37
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.2 Direction of Resultant Hydrostatic Force
Since all the differential forces that were summed to
obtain F
R
are perpendicular to the surface, the
resultant F
R
must also be perpendicular to the surface

3-38
3 Fluid Statics
3.5.3 Line of Action of Resultant Hydrostatic Force

Let line of action of resultant force F
R
pass through
center of pressure CP with coordinates (x
P
, y
P
). This
point that the resultant force acts is determined by the
moment condition

P
y
P
is determined by equating moment of resultant force
F
R
about the x-axis to moment
of distributed pressure force
about the x-axis:

y
p
is the distance of CP from
x-axis
P R
A A
y F ydF yPdA = =
} }
3-39
3 Fluid Statics

Second moment of area of plane surface about the x-
axis passing through O:

Parallel axis theorem:

I
xx,C
is the second moment of area of plane surface about
an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to the
x-axis
y
C
(y-coordinate of centroid) is the distance between the
two parallel axes
P
( )
0
sin
P R
A
y F y P gy dA u = +
}
2
0
sin
P R
A A
y F P ydA g y dA u = +
} }
0 ,
sin
P R C xx O
y F P y A g I u = +
2
, xx O
A
I y dA =
}
2
, , xx O xx C C
I I y A = +
(3.5.4)
(3.5.6)
(3.5.5)
3-40
3 Fluid Statics
Substituting (3.5.1) and (3.5.6) into (3.5.4),
P
( )
( )
2
0 0 ,
sin sin
P C C xx C C
y P gy A P y A g I y A u u + = + +
0 ,
sin
P R C xx O
y F P y A g I u = + (3.5.4)
( )
0
sin
R C
F P gy A u = +
2
, , xx O xx C C
I I y A = +
2
0 0 ,
sin sin sin
P C P C C xx C
y P A y P A y y gA y gA g I u u u + =
( ) ( )
0 ,
sin sin
P C P C C xx C
y y P A y y y gA g I u u + =
,
0
sin
sin
xx C
P C
C
g I
y y
P A y gA
u
u
=
+
( )
,
0
sin
xx C
P C
C
I
y y
P g y A u
= +
+ (

(3.5.7)
3-41
3 Fluid Statics
KEY IDEA: If P
0
= 0 (considering gage pressures),
(3.5.7) becomes

KEY IDEA:
Resultant force F
R
does not pass through centroid C
but passes through center of pressure CP

Since , CP lower than C

(except when = 0)

As y
C
increases, CP moves closer to C
P
, xx C
P C
C
I
y y
y A
= +
,
0
xx C
C
I
y A
>
P C
y y >
(3.5.8)
3-42
3 Fluid Statics
P
3-43
3 Fluid Statics
P
3-44
3 Fluid Statics
Summing moments about the y-axis,

Cross moment of area of plane surface about the x- and
y-axes passing through O:

Parallel axis theorem:

P
P R
A A
x F xdF xPdA = =
} }
( )
0
sin
P R
A
x F x P gy dA u = +
}
0
sin
P R
A A
x F P xdA g xydA u = +
} }
0 ,
sin
P R C xy O
x F P x A g I u = +
, xy O
A
I xydA =
}
, , xy O xy C C C
I I x y A = +
(3.5.9)
(3.5.10)
(3.5.11)
3-45
3 Fluid Statics

I
xy,C
is the cross moment of area of plane surface about
axes passing through the centroid and parallel to the x-
and y-axes

Substituting (3.5.1) and (3.5.11) into (3.5.9),

If P
0
= 0 (considering gage pressures), (3.5.12) becomes
P
( )
,
0
sin
xy C
P C
C
I
x x
P g y A u
= +
+ (

, xy C
P C
C
I
x x
y A
= +
(3.5.12)
(3.5.13)
3-46
3 Fluid Statics

Note:
I
xy,C
can be positive, negative or zero

I
xy,C
= 0 plane surface is symmetrical with respect
to an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to
either the x- or y-axes x
P
= x
C
CP lies directly
below C along the y-axis

Can assume P
0
= 0 if same ambient pressure acting
on both sides of surface
P
3-47
3 Fluid Statics
Centroidal coordinates and moments of area for some
common areas are given as follows:

3-48
3 Fluid Statics
3-49
3 Fluid Statics
Reviewing
The magnitude of the resultant force acting on a plane surface of a
completely submerged plate in a homogeneous (constant density)
fluid is equal to the product of the pressure P
C
at the centroid of the
surface and the area A of the surface
R C ave
F P A P A = =
3-50
3 Fluid Statics
Reviewing
In the case of gage pressure (or set P
o
= 0)
, xy C
P C
C
I
x x
y A
= +
, xx C
P C
C
I
y y
y A
= +
3-51
3 Fluid Statics
Gate 5 m wide is
hinged at B and
rests against smooth
wall at A
Find:
a) Force on gate
due to water
pressure
b) Horizontal force P
exerted by wall at
A
c) Reactions at
hinge B
Example 3.3
3-52
3 Fluid Statics
Solution:
Part (a)
Gate is 10 m long from A to B centroid (CG) is halfway
between at elevation 3 m above B
Depth of centroid h
C
= 15 3 = 12 m
Gate area = 10 x 5 = 50 m
2
Neglect P
0
as acting on both sides of gate
Hydrostatic force on gate:

Example 3.3
R C
F P A =
A gh F
C R
=
( )( )( )( ) 50 12 81 . 9 1000 =
R
F

6
5.886 10 N
R
F =
z
y
3-53
3 Fluid Statics
Part (b)
Example 3.3
First find center of
pressure of F
R

Gate is a rectangle:

Centroid (C):
0
,
=
C xy
I
( )( )
4
3
3
,
m 417
12
10 5
12
= = =
ba
I
C xx
sin
C C
h y u =
( )
12
20 m
sin 3 5
C
C
h
y
u
= = =
y
3-54
3 Fluid Statics
Center of Pressure (CP):

Distance of B to force F
R
= 10 l 5 = 4.583 m
Taking moments counterclockwise about B:

, xx C
P C
C
I
y y
y A
= +
, xx C
P C
C
I
l y y
y A
= =
( )( )
417
0.417 m
20 50
l = =
( )
( )( )
( )
( )
6
6
sin 5 0
10 3 5 5.886 10 5 0.417 0
4.496 10 N
R
PL F l
P
P
u =
=
=
Example 3.3
3-55
3 Fluid Statics
Part (c)
Summing forces on gate:

Example 3.3
( )
( )
6 6
6
0
sin 0
5.886 10 3 5 4.496 10 0
0.964 10 N
x
x R
x
x
F
B F P
B
B
u
=
+ =
+ =
=
( )
( )
6
6
0
cos 0
5.886 10 4 5 0
4.709 10 N
z
z R
z
z
F
B F
B
B
u
=
=
=
=
3-56
3 Fluid Statics
Tank of oil
with right
triangular
panel near
bottom
Assume P
0
=
0 Pa gage
Find
a) Hydrostatic
force on
panel
b) Center of
pressure
Example 3.4
y
z
3-57
3 Fluid Statics
Solution:
Part (a)
Centroid of triangle is 4 m up,
2 m over from lower left hand
Area of triangle:

Depth of centroid: h
C
= 5 + 4 = 9 m
Hydrostatic force:

( )( )
2
1
12 6 36 m
2
A= =
R C
F P A =
A gh F
C R
=
( )( )( )( )
900 9.81 9 36
R
F =
Example 3.4
6
2.861 10 N
R
F =
3-58
3 Fluid Statics
Part (b)
Second moments of area:
a = 12 m, b = 6 m, d = 0

Centroid (C):

( )( )
3
3
4
,
6 12
288 m
36 36
xx C
ba
I = = =
( )
( )( )
( )
2
2
4
,
6 12
2 6 2 0 72 m
72 72
xy C
ba
I b d = = =
sin
C C
h y u =
9
18 m
sin sin30
C
C
h
y
u
= = =
Example 3.4
3-59
3 Fluid Statics
Center of pressure (CP):

Resultant force F
R
= 2.861 x 10
6
N acts through (x
P
, y
P
),
which is below and to the right of centroid

, xx C
P C
C
I
y y
y A
= +
( )( )
,
288
0.444 m
18 36
xx C
P C
C
I
y y
y A
= = = +
, xy C
P C
C
I
x x
y A
= +
( )( )
,
72
0.111 m
18 36
xy C
P C
C
I
x x
y A
= = = +
Example 3.4
3-60
3 Fluid Statics
3.6 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Submerged Surfaces
Consider arbitrary curved surface:

Incremental pressure
forces are normal to
the local area element
forces vary in
direction along the
surface cannot be
added numerically
Separate into
horizontal component
F
H
and vertical
component F
V

3-61
3 Fluid Statics
3-62
3 Fluid Statics
Project curved surface AB horizontally (along x-axis) onto
vertical plane BC get projected area S on vertical plane
AB

Projected area S lies on a vertical plane ( = 90)
Can determine centroid C and center of pressure CP
Can determine magnitude and line of action of resultant
horizontal force due to hydrostatic pressure F
X

Consider column of fluid enclosed by curved surface AB
and projected area S lying on vertical plane BC:
3-63
3 Fluid Statics
F
H
is the horizontal component of the force exerted by
the fluid on the curved surface AB
By Newtons third law, F
H
is the horizontal component
of the force exerted by the curved surface on the fluid
(liquid column)
3-64
3 Fluid Statics

Liquid column is in static equilibrium horizontal forces
must balance:

KEY IDEA: The horizontal component of hydrostatic
force acting on a curved surface is equal to the force on
the plane area formed by the projection of the curved
surface onto a vertical plane normal to the component. It
acts through the center of pressure (not centroid) of the
projected area
H X
F F =
3-65
3 Fluid Statics
Consider free-body diagram of fluid column contained in
vertical projection above curved surface AB:
3-66
3 Fluid Statics
F
V
is the vertical component
of the force exerted by the
fluid on the curved surface AB

By Newtons third law, F
V
is
the vertical component of the
force exerted by the curved
surface on the fluid (liquid
column)

W is the weight of the liquid
column extending vertically
from curved surface AB to
horizontal free surface ED
3-67
3 Fluid Statics
Assume P
0
= 0 (considering gage pressures)
Liquid column is in static equilibrium vertical forces
must balance:

KEY IDEA: The vertical component of pressure force on
a curved surface equals in both magnitude and direction
to the weight of the entire fluid column above the curved
surface, and acts through the center of gravity (centroid)
of the fluid column
V
F W =
3-68
3 Fluid Statics
Dam with parabolic
shape

x
0
= 10 m, z
0
= 24 m
Fluid: water ( =
1000 kg/m
3
)
Omit atmospheric
pressure (P
0
= 0 Pa
gage)
Find F
H
and F
V

acting on dam and
position CP where
they act
Width of dam: b =
100 m
Example 3.5
( )
2
0 0
x x z z =
3-69
3 Fluid Statics
Solution:
Vertical projection of curved surface is a rectangle 24 m
high and 100 m wide

Depth of centroid:
y
C
= h
C
= 12 m

Horizontal component F
H
:
sin
C C
h y u =
sin90
C C C
h y y = =
Example 3.5
A gh F
C H
=
100 24 12 81 . 9 1000 =
H
F
8
2.825 10 N
H
F =
3-70
3 Fluid Statics
Line of action of F
H
below free surface:

h
P
= 16 m
F
H
acts 8 m from bottom
Vertical component F
V
weight of parabolic portion of
fluid above curved surface
A y
I
y y h
C
C xx
C P P
,
+ = =
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3 1
100 24
12
12
12 24 100
P P
h y = = +
Example 3.5
|
.
|
\
|
= b z x g F
V 0 0
3
2
( )( ) ( )( )( )
2
1000 9.81 10 24 100
3
V
F
| |
=
|
\ .
8
1.570 10 N
V
F =
3-71
3 Fluid Statics
F
V
acts downward on surface at 3x
0
/8 = 3.75 m from
origin
Example 3.5
Total resultant force on
dam:

F = 3.232 x 10
8
N
F acts down and to the
right at angle of

F passes through
(3.75 m, 8 m)

2 2
V H
F F F + =
( ) ( )
2
8
2
8
10 570 . 1 10 825 . 2 + = F
=
|
.
|
\
|
29
825 . 2
570 . 1
tan
1
3-72
3 Fluid Statics
Move down along 29 line until strike dam equivalent
center of pressure CP:
x
CP
= 5.43 m
z
CP
= 7.07 m
Example 3.5
3-73
3 Fluid Statics
Hydrostatic pressure in a constant density fluid increases
linearly with depth
A net upward vertical force acts on body because
pressure forces acting from below body are larger than
the pressure forces acting from above body
Resultant upward vertical force due to unbalanced
hydrostatic forces called buoyancy force or upthrust
3.7 Buoyancy
3.7.1 Physical Explanation for Origin of Buoyancy Force
3-74
3 Fluid Statics
Consider a submerged body which lies between an
upper curved surface 1 and lower curved surface 2:

Body experiences net upward buoyant or upthrust force

( ) ( )
1
(fluid weight a -
= wei
2
(fluid weight
ght of fluid e
b
q
ov
ui
e 1)
vale
above
nt to body v um
2)
ol e
V V B
F F F =
=
3-75
3 Fluid Statics
KEY IDEA: Archimedes Principle:
A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical
buoyant (upthrust) force equal to the weight of the fluid it
displaces

Alternatively, sum the vertical forces on elemental
vertical slices through the immersed body:
Archimedes
(287-212 BC)
Eureka - herka (I have found it!)
Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth
3-76
3 Fluid Statics
Center of buoyancy B may or may not correspond to
actual mass center of immersed bodys own material,
which may have variable density
( )
2 1 B H
body
F g z z dA =
}
( )
body volume
B
F g =
Line of action of buoyant
force F
B
passes through
center of volume of displaced
body known as center of
buoyancy B
3-77
3 Fluid Statics
Shaded portion of body is the displaced volume
Buoyancy force:
F
B
= weight of fluid displaced
F
B
= g(displaced volume)
Vertical equilibrium:
B
F W =
3-78
3 Fluid Statics
KEY IDEA: Law of Flotation (Archimedes Principle):
Buoyancy force on an object equals to the weight of the
displaced volume of fluid in which it floats

Note:

Displaced volume = volume of
submerged portion of floating
body = V
sub

Since there can be no net
moments for static equilibrium,
buoyant force F
B
and body
weight W are collinear
3-79
3 Fluid Statics
Hydrometer floats at level which is
a measure of specific gravity of
liquid
Top part of hydrometer extends
above liquid surface
Divisions on hydrometer allow
specific gravity to be read directly
Hydrometer calibrated such that
in pure water it reads exactly 1.0
at air-water interface
a) Obtain relation for specific gravity
of a liquid as a function of
distance z from mark
corresponding to pure water
b) Determine mass of lead that must
be poured into a 2-cm-diameter,
20-cm-long hydrometer if it is to
float halfway (the 10-cm mark) in
pure water
Example 3.6
3-80
3 Fluid Statics
Solution:
Part (a)
Hydrometer in static equilibrium:

A: cross sectional area of tube

w
: density of pure water
In fluids less dense than water (
f
<
w
) hydrometer
sinks deeper liquid level rises a distance z above z
0

Relation also valid for fluids denser than water (
f
>
w
)
z < 0
Relating (E3.6.1) and (E3.6.2),

z
0
is constant for a given hydrometer
Example 3.6
0 B w sub w
F W gV gAz = = =
( )
0 B f sub f
F W gV gA z z = = = +A
( )
0 0 w f
gAz gA z z = +A
0
0
f
f
w
z
SG
z z
= =
+ A
(E3.6.1)
(E3.6.2)
3-81
3 Fluid Statics
Part (b)
Neglect weight of glass tube
sub w B
gV F mg W = = =
sub w
V m =
( )
sub w
h R m
2
t =
( ) 1 . 0 01 . 0 1000
2
= t m
Example 3.6
0.0314 kg m=
3-82
3 Fluid Statics
Body floats in between 2 immiscible fluids
Evaluate x
Example 3.7
3-83
3 Fluid Statics
Solution:
Let length of body perpendicular to page be L
Volume of displaced fluid:

Buoyancy force:

Weight of body:

Example 3.7
1
V axL =
1 1 B
F gaxL =
( )
2 2 B
F ga b x L =
( )
1 2 B
F gaxL ga b x L = +
W gV gabL = =
3-84
3 Fluid Statics
Vertical equilibrium:

Example 3.7
B
F W =
( )
1 2
gaxL ga b x L gabL + =
( )
1 2
x b x b + =
( )
2
2 1
b
x

1 2
0 x b s s s s
3-85
3 Fluid Statics
Ball on floor analogy
Case (a) stable any small
disturbance generates a restoring
force (due to gravity) that returns
body to its initial equilibrium position
Case (b) neutrally stable when
displaced, body has no tendency to
move back to its initial location, nor
does it continue to move away
Case (c) unstable body may be
in equilibrium instantaneously, but
any infinitesimal disturbance causes
body to roll off hill body does not
return to initial position but diverges
from it
3.8 Stability
3.8.1 Notion of Stability
3-86
3 Fluid Statics
Stability of a submerged body depends on relative
locations of
Center of gravity G of body
Center of buoyancy B (centroid of displaced volume)
3-87
3 Fluid Statics
(i) B is above G stable

Disturbance of body produces a restoring moment to
return body to its original stable position
3-88
3 Fluid Statics
(ii) B is below G unstable

Disturbance of body produces an overturning moment

(iii) B and G coincide neutrally stable
body has no tendency to overturn or right itself
3-89
3 Fluid Statics
A floating body has 6 degrees of freedom its motions
are defined as translations (3 degrees of freedom) and
rotations (3 degrees of freedom) about a set of
orthogonal axes

3-90
3 Fluid Statics
Along x-axis Sway (forward/astern)
Along y-axis Surge (starboard/port)
Along z-axis Heave (up/down)

Along x-axis Pitch (about sway axis)
Along y-axis Roll (about surge axis)
Along z-axis Yaw (about heave axis)

Roll and pitch are the dynamic equivalents of heel and
trim, respectively
Translation
Rotation
3-91
3 Fluid Statics
As floating body rotates,
location of the center of buoyancy B (which passes
through centroid of the displaced volume) may
change: B B
location of center of gravity G of body remains
unchanged
3-92
3 Fluid Statics
Metacenter M point of intersection of original vertical
axis with line of action of buoyancy force after an angle
of heel
Metacentric height GM
determines stability of floating body
important parameter in design of floating bodies
need to determine GM
T

(transverse metacentric height)
corresponding to roll (angular
displacement about y-axis) and
GM
L
(longitudinal metacentric
height) corresponding to pitch
(angular displacement about x-
axis) for different water levels
before construction of floating
body
3-93
3 Fluid Statics
(i) M above G GM > 0 Stable equilibrium
Restoring couple acts on floating body in its displaced
position tending to restore it to its original position
Restoring couple =
(GZ is called the righting arm)
sin W GM W GZ u =
3-94
3 Fluid Statics
(ii) M below G GM < 0 Unstable equilibrium
Overturning couple acts on body
(iii) M coincides with G GM = 0 Neutral equilibrium
Zero resultant couple body has no tendency to
return to, nor move further away from original position

Stability of floating body is not simply determined by
relative positions of B and G, unlike submerged bodies
3-95
3 Fluid Statics
For an upright vessel, point of buoyancy (buoyancy
center) is at B
B is centroid of volume of fluid displaced by floating body
(and is shape dependent)
Vessel is given a slight angular perturbation center
of buoyancy shifts: B B
B and B are centroids of volume of displaced fluid
before and after perturbations, respectively
3-96
3 Fluid Statics
Determination of GM main result
From geometry,

where KB and KG can be obtained from
center of gravity and buoyancy calculations,
and BM is known as the metacentric radius,
which is given by (see suppl. slides for proof)

I
Oy
second moment of area of the plane of floatation (water
line cross section) about the Oy-axis
V
sub
volume of submerged portion of floating body
(displaced volume)
Plane of flotation refers to water plane
KM KG GM KB BM = + = +
GM KB BM KG = +
Oy
sub
I
BM
V
=
(3.8.1)
(3.8.2)
(3.8.3)
3-97
3 Fluid Statics
Plane of flotation:
2
Oy
Area
I x dA =
}
Rolling about y: rolling
Rolling about x: pitching
Rolling about z: yawing
3-98
3 Fluid Statics
Barge has uniform rectangular cross section of width 2b
and vertical draft of height h
G is exactly at waterline
Determine
Metacentric height
Range of ratio b/h for which barge is stable
Example 3.8
3-99
3 Fluid Statics
Solution:

Assuming barge has length L into
paper plane of flotation is a
rectangle with base L and height
2b

Example 3.8
2 KB h =
KG h =
( )
3
3
2
2
12 3
Oy
b L
b L
I = =
( )
2 2
sub
V b L h bLh = =
KM KB BM KG GM
GM KB BM KG
= + = +
= +
3
2
2
3
2 3
Oy
sub
b L
I
b
BM
V bLh h
= = =
3-100
3 Fluid Statics

Metacentric height:

For stability:

Barge wider relative to draft stability improves
Lowering G also improves stability
KG BM KB GM + =
2
2 3
h b
GM h
h
= +
2
3 2
b h
GM
h
=
0 GM >
2
0
3 2
b h
h
>
2
3
2
b
h
| |
>
|
\ .
3
2
b
h
>
Example 3.8
3-101
3 Fluid Statics
Factors affecting selection of GM
T
(a) GM
T
should be large enough:
in a passenger ship to prevent capsizing due to
large heel (roll) angle in case of partial flooding
to minimize serious heeling due to strong beam
wind
to render a ship stable for various cargo loading
conditions
to prevent large heeling angles during turning
(b) GM
T
should be small enough to prevent violent rolling
in waves
Taking moment about an axis parallel to y-axis passing
through G,
Restoring couple =
(Newtons second law for angular motion)
u

Oy
J
3-102
3 Fluid Statics
J
Oy
is the moment of inertia of the floating body about
its axis of rotation Oy
Negative sign arises because couple acts so as to
decrease
Moment arm =
sin
T
GM u
3-103
3 Fluid Statics
Hence,

For small ,

Hence,

which is the equation of simple harmonic motion with
angular frequency

u u

Oy T
J GM W = sin
u u

Oy T
J GM W =
2
0
T
Oy
W GM
J
u u u e u
+ = = +
( ) ( ) ( )
sin cos
T
Oy
W GM
J
t a t b t
e
u e e
=
= +
Restoring couple due to initial
angular displacement of angle
3-104
3 Fluid Statics
and period of oscillation

GM
T
T

Notes:
Ship with large GM
T
is called a stiff ship greater
stability but shorter period of roll T vessel less
comfortable for passengers and is subjected to strains
which may damage its structure
Cargo vessels GM varies with loading although some
control of its value is possible by adjusting position of
cargo
Warships and racing yachts larger GM because
stability more important than comfort
T
Oy
GM W
J
T
= = t
e
t
2
2
3-105
3 Fluid Statics

Reasonable agreement between theoretical and
experimental values of T has been found for rolling
motion of ships but less agreement for pitching motions

If only forces acting are W and B (both of which are
vertical), then G does not move horizontally
instantaneous axis of rotation lies on horizontal plane
through G I
Oy
= I
G

Oscillation causes some flow around body which has
been neglected oscillations usually damped by
viscosity of water unless further disturbances such as
waves cause new angular displacements some
passenger liners have mechanical dampers installed

(See lab ME2134-1: Stability of Floating Body)
3-106
3 Fluid Statics
Supplement Slides

3-107
3 Fluid Statics
Evaluation of BM
Tilting the body by a small angle
submerges a small wedge (green) and
uncovers an equal wedge (yellow)
New center of buoyancy B
( ) ( )
2
0 tan tan
tan tan
tan
sub
orig
sub
V
V green yellow
green yellow
Oy
floatation
Oy
sub
x V xdV
xdV xdV xdV
xL x dx xL x dx
x dA I
I
x
BM
V
u u
u u
u
'
=
= +
= +
= =
'
= =
}
} } }
} }
}
3-108
3 Fluid Statics
Proof:
2
2
2
0
3
0
3
0
3
2
3
Oy
Area
Area
y L x b
y x b
x b
y L
y
x b
y L
y
I x dA
x dxdy
x dxdy
x
dy
b dy
= =
= =
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(
=
(

=
}
}
} }
}
}
3-109
3 Fluid Statics
Hence (3.8.4) becomes

or

For transverse metacentric radius,

Similarly, for longitudinal metacentric radius,

Once KB, KG and BM are known, can evaluate
metacentric height GM using

sub Oy
BM V I u u =
Oy
T
sub
I
BM
V
=
Ox
L
sub
I
BM
V
=
KG BM KB GM + =
(3.8.2)
Oy
sub
I
BM
V
=
http://www.polysep.ucla.edu/c101a/YoungMunsonOkiishi%20A%20Brief%20Intro/Clips/V2_7.mov
3-110
3 Fluid Statics
Reviewing
Archimedes Principle:
A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical buoyant (upthrust)
force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces

Center of buoyancy B may or may not correspond to actual mass
center of immersed bodys own material
For stability the metacentre must be above the center of gravity
or GM > 0

( )
body volume
B
F g =
3-111
3 Fluid Statics
Reviewing
Pressure in a fluid is independent of shape or cross
section of container
Pressures changes with vertical distance (depth), but
remains constant in other directions
Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane
in a given fluid

Easier to remember:

where is the absolute difference in depth between the two
points of interest

dP
g
dz
=
top
bottom
P P g z = + A
z A

Chapter 3

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3-1

ME2134 Fluid Mechanics I

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