Lecture 22 Central Nervous System

Kardong Chapter 16, Hildebrand Chapter 18

Definitions involving the CNS

gray matter: areas of concentrated cell bodies white matter: areas of concentrated axons cortex: gray matter on the surface of the brain nucleus: gray matter within the brain tract: a bundle of axons linking nuclei commissures and decussations: tracts linking nuclei on the left and right sides of the CNS ventricle: hollow area, filled with cerebrospinal fluid choroid plexus: thin wall of ventricle where blood vascular system exchanges with the cerebrospinal fluid

Remember that in the PNS bundles of axons are nerves and groups of neuron cell bodies (gray matter) are ganglia.

Development of the CNS

KK 16.25, H&G 18.2

The CNS develops directly from the neural tube. The anterior end of the embryonic brain has 3 swollen regions, associated with the 3 species senses, and these become the brain. We can refer to these as the forebrain (prosencephalon), the midbrain (mesencephalon) and the hindbrain (rhombencephalon). The forebrain is associated with the olfactory sense, the midbrain is associated with the optic sense, and the hindbrain is associated with the inner ear and lateral line.

KK 16.25, H&G 18.3

Development of the CNS 2

The forebrain swells anteriorly as a pair of hollow cerebral hemispheres, each associated with an olfactory bulb (cranial nerve I). Its ventral surface interacts with the hypophyseal sac to produce the pituitary. The midbrain and hindbrain change less in shape, but the hindbrain generally has a dorsal elaboration or cerebellum. The brain is essentially hollow, with four chambers labelled I through IV. The dorsal walls of chambers III and IV are thin, and are referred to as the anterior and posterior choroid plexuses. Brainstem?

The Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is also hollow, but the central canal is small. The central H shaped area of the mammalian spinal cord is grey matter containing cell bodies of motor nerves and association neurons. The more peripheral white matter is where tracts of neurons travel up and down the cord. The shape of the grey matter varies among vertebrates.

KK 16.26, H&G 17.9, 17.10

Within the grey matter of the cord, motor nuclei are found in the lower part of the H and nuclei associated with sensory neurons are associated with the upper.

Sensory information going towards the brain uses tracts in the dorsal white matter, while motor signals coming from the brain use the ventral white matter.
KK 16.28, H&G 17.9 ,17.12

Posterior Brainstem or Medulla

Cranial nerves except special series I and II emerge from the medulla. It resembles the spinal cord in its morphology and function, but contains the nuclei of cranial rather than spinal nerves.

The medulla is the location of the 4th ventricle and its thin dorsal wall is the posterior choroid plexus.

KK 16.35b, 16.37a, H&G 18.13

Medulla: Cerebellum and Pons

The cerebellum and pons are expansions of the medulla dorsally and ventrally. The cerebellum is always present and may be highly folded, particularly in birds and mammals. The pons is also most evident in these animals. The function of the cerebellum and pons is the coordination of complex locomotory activities. They does not initiate locomotion, but integrate sensory information with motor activity.

KK 16.35b, 16.37a, H&G 18.13

Midbrain
The dorsal surface of the midbrain or tectum is represented by a pair of optic lobes in most vertebrates. The optic lobes are involved with processing optical information coming in via cranial nerve II. In mammals, the processing of optical information occurs in the cerebrum. The tectum is represented by anterior and posterior colliculi; four small bodies that are involved with processing spatial information.

KK 16.35b, 16.37a, H&G 18.13

Anterior Brainstem - Epithalamus

The dorsal surface of the thalamus (epithalamus) is the site of the anterior choroid plexus. It is also the site of the pineal complex, a set of up to four organs are believed to be derivatives of ancestral dorsal eyes. The parietal organ senses light and actually has a lens in many extinct amphibians and reptiles, and one living diapsid reptile (Sphenodon or the Tuatara). The pineal body (epiphysis) is more universal, and in some vertebrates is an endocrine gland secreting hormones that control rhythms of activity related to time of day and season.
KK 16.35b, 16.37a, H&G 18.13

Thalamus and Hypothalamus

The lateral walls of the thalamus contain many nuclei where sensory information and motor signals are integrated. Consciousness, and sensations such as pain and pleasure, arise from the thalamus. The ventral thalamus or hypothalamus contains nuclei that regulate autonomic functions, sleeping, sexual behaviour, and emotions. It regulates these partly via the pituitary gland on its ventral surface.

KK 16.35b, 16.37a, H&G 18.13

The Cerebrum
The forebrain expands as a pair of cerebral hemispheres around ventricles, except in Actinopterygii where the cerebrum has a unique T shape in transverse section. The forebrain is involved with the olfactory sense, plus the optic sense in mammals, as well as a number of other functions. It is the highest centre of sensory-motor integration, and initiates many responses.

KK 16.35b, 16.37a, H&G 18.13

Cerebrum 2 KK 16.42, H&G 18.10

The cerebral hemispheres are thought to contain functionally similar and homologous regions in all vertebrates. The relative position of these differs between Actinopterygii and other vertebrates. As well, some of the regions are differentially increased in size and their surface area (cortex) is differentially increased by folding.

The Cerebrum 3

Fig. KK16.42, H&G 18.10

The function of the cerebrum is incompletely understood. Nonetheless, tentative statements can be made.

The pallium primarily receives olfactory input, but also other sensory inputs. The medial pallium (formerly hippocampus) is involved in inquisitive behaviour and short-term memory.

The lateral pallium (piriform lobe) along with the olfactory bulb itself is the area where olfactory information is processed. The striatum appears to be a centre where motion is initiated based on sensory information and memory.

The Cerebrum 4
KK 16.43, H&G 18.10

The relative proportions of the various regions of the cerebrum are comparble among nonamniotes. In amniotes, increase in the size of the brain appears to be related to greater capacity for learning relative to instinctive behaviour. In birds and reptiles, it is a region called the DVR that expands. The relationship of the DVR to tissues of other vertebrates is not clear, and H&G and KK disagree. In mammals, the dorsal pallium expands, and often becomes highly folded.

Fish Brains
KK 16.35, H&G18.3

The forebrain and hindbrain of fishes are comparable in size, while the optic lobes (tectum) may be large if the species is very visual in its feeding, like the bowfin (Amia).
Note that the olfactory bulbs can rival the size of the cerebral hemispheres.

Tetrapod Brains KK 16.35, H&G 18.14

The brains of lower tetrapods are not very different from those of fish in their gross anatomy.

Birds and Mammals

Brains of birds and mammals are dominated by the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebellums of both, and the cerebral hemispheres in mammals, are deeply folded increasing the amount of cortex. The increase in the bird cerebrum is due to increased amount of deeper grey matter of the lateral pallium rather than increased cortex due to folding. Note the absence of optic lobes in the mammal.

KK 16.35, H&G 18.14, 18.15