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Microwave Fundamentals

DHARMENDRA MOHAPATRA.
ASST. MANAGER-TRANSMISSION
GUWAHATY

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Microwave Fundamentals-
• Radio Propagation
• Terminologies.
• Polarization.
• Microwave Frequency Bands.
• Free space Loss.
• Antenna .
• Fresnel Zone
• Modulation Technologies (QAM).
• SDH,PDH,E1

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Radio Propagation

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics
a. Radio Wave Propagation & Its Characterstics
i) Definition of Microwave :
Microwaves in a descriptive term used to identify electromagnetic waves in the frequency
spectrum ranging approx from 1 GHz to 30GHz. This corresponds to wavelength 30cm
to 1 cm. Since the wavelength is small the phase varies rapidly with distance, thus a
signal reaching to a point from two different routes may cause constructive or destructive
interference. Moreover these frequencies contain two energies (Electric and Magnetic)
so also known as ELECTROMAGNATIC WAVES. Propagations of this waves happens
in such a way that direction of propagation, Electric field and Magnetic field always
remains perpendicular to each other. Microwaves frequencies characteristics are very
much similar to light. The same is shown in the figure:

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics
E

H
P

Depending on the topography and the meteorological conditions, radio waves propagate
In different ways causing attenuation to the original wave. Following propagation
mechanisms come into play:

ii) Reflection :
When electromagnetic waves incide on a surface they may be reflected depending on
the smoothness of the surface. When the surface is smooth and its size is greater than
the wavelength of the wave then it is Reflected.

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics

i r Where i = incident angle


r = reflected angle
Glazy Surface

iii) Refraction :
Bending of waves when passing through one media to other media of different refractive
index is called REFRACTION. Radio waves travel with different velocities in different
medium depending on their dielectric constants. The dielectric constant of the
atmosphere decrease with altitude. Thus the waves travel slower in the lower part of
atmosphere where dielectric constant is greater and faster in the upper part where
dielectric constant is lower thus refracting the beam downwards.

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics
RI1 Medium 1

Where RI1 = Refractive index of medium 1


RI2 = Refractive index of medium 2
RI2

Medium 2

RI1 < RI2


iv) K-Factor & Effective Earth Radius:
In a horizontally homogeneous atmosphere where the vertical change of dielectric
constant is gradual, the bending or refraction is continuous, so that the ray is slowly
bent away from the thinner density air towards thicker, thus making the beam tend to
follow the earth’s curvature. This bending can be directly related to the radii of
spheres. The first sphere being the earth itself (radius =6370 km) and the second

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics
sphere is formed by the curvature of the ray beam with its center coinciding the
earth’s center. The K- Factor thus can be defined as the ratio of the radius, r, of the
ray beam curvature to the true earth radius r’.
i.e. K = r / r’, where K is called effective earth radius factor and r is the effective earth
radius.
For K = infinity Optical Line of sight
Effective Radio

For K = 1
Transmitter Antenna
Receiver

For K = 0.5 Antenna

Effective Earth

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics
v) Scattering :
When Electromagnetic waves incide on a rough surface having rough edges whose
dimension is less than the wavelength of the wave, it is scattered in different
directions. Scattering is a phenomenon which causes vector distribution of energy as
shown in the figure.

Incident wave Scattered waves

vi) Absorption :
At frequencies above 10 GHz the propagation of radio waves through the atmosphere
of the earth is strongly affected by the resonant absorption of electromagnetic energy
by molecular water vapour and oxygen. The amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere strongly varies from place to place according to the local meteorological
conditions.
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Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics
vii) Attenuation :
As the EM waves travels it losses its energy, this is due to attenuation. Attenuation is
due to presence of other field (Magnetic or Electric), Due to fog, Due to Rain etc.

P1 P2

Attenuation = 10 log (P2/P1) db

Rain Attenuation : Scattering and absorption of the radio wave by raindrops causes
attenuation. Although all frequencies are subject to these effects, rain attenuation is
of practical importance for frequencies above 10 GHz. Due to the random
behaviour of the rain events the same is not included as a contribution to the Link
Budget calculation.
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Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics
viii) Fading :
Fading is defined as any time varying of phase, polarization, and/ or level of a
received signal. The most basic propagation mechanism involved in Fading are
reflection, refraction, diffraction, scattering, attenuation and guiding(ducting).
i. Multi path Fading :
It is a common type of fading encountered in LOS radio links. This type of fading
results due to the interference between direct rays and component of ground
reflected wave & partial reflection from atmosphere.
ii. Fading due to Earth Bulge :
iii. Duct & Layer fading : Atmospheric ducts consisting of superrefractive and a
subrefractive layer or vice versa.
iv. Surface duct fading on over water path : It is a combination of multi path fading
due to water body and fading due to atmospheric duct.

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its
characteristics

Effective Earth
Effective Earth

Multi path fading Atmospheric duct

Effective Earth
Water Body

Fading due to earth bulge Surface duct

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Trunk Radio Characteristics

 Long distance
 Therefore lower frequencies
 Therefore subject to Multipath fading
 Diversity route compensation
 Lower frequencies less effected by rain

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Wave Propagation in Atmosphere
With Atmosphere
No Atmosphere

 The highest index of refraction is near the surface of the


earth, the waves are bent towards the ground
 K-Value is a common used value to indicate ray bending
with respect to the physical radius of the earth
 For a normal atmosphere K value equals 4/3
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Multipath

 Multipath propagation occurs when there are more


then one ray reaching the receiver
 Multipath transmission is the main cause of fading

Direct beam

Delayed beam

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Diffraction
 Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed
by surface with sharp irregular edges
 Waves bends around the obstacle, even when line of
sight does not exist

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K Factor onEarth

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Fade Margins
Fading depends on atmospheric conditions, path climatic
conditions and path terrain (need a path profile)
Rx signal level
Rx signal level - rain

Flat
Thermal Fade Flat
fade
Fade Margin Margin
Rain
Margin

Rx Threshold level + interference

Rx Threshold level

Effective Flat Dispersive RSL


Fade
Margin
f Fade
,
Fade
Margin Margin
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Rain Fading

 Rain Outage due to water absorption


 Increases with frequency
 Depends on amount of water in path
 Rain rate (mm/hr)
 Depends on rain region
 How often does that mm/hr occur
 Rain falls as flattened droplet
 V better than H

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Polarization

i) Electromagnetic Waves & Fields


Energy in EM waves is in form of Electric and Magnetic field. Energy of any MW wave
is vector sum of its all-electrical and magnetic components. The concept can be better
understood from the following diagrams :

M
P

E16 E1 E2 H12 H13 H14


E15 E3 H11 H15

E14 E4 H10 H16

E13 E5 H9 H1

E12 E6 H8 H2

E11 E7 H7 H3
E10 E9 E8 H6 H5 H4

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Polarization

ii) Polarization ( H, V & Circular):


When EM wave contains E and H energies in all direction that is know as circularly
Polarized as shown in the last figure.
When EM waves has got only electrical component perpendicular to Horizon of earth,
is known as Vertical Polarized wave.
When EM waves has got electrical component parallel to Horizon of earth, known as
Horizontally polarized wave.
Vertically polarized wave travels longer distance as compare to horizontally polarized
wave. E H

H E

P=V P=H

Earth

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Microwave Frequency
Band

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i) Microwave Frequency Bands as per ITU Radio Regulation :
Radio Waves are defined by Radio Regulations of the International telecommunication
Union.The radio spectrum allocated for Microwave are UHF,SHF and EHF as
mentioned below in the table:
M e tric
C o rre s p o n d in gA b b re v ia tio n s fo r
B and N um ber S ym b ol F re q u e n c y R a n gMee tric S u b d iv is io n th e b a n d
4 VLF 3 to 3 0 k H z M yria m e tric w a ve s B . M a m
5 LF 3 0 to 3 0 0 k H z K ilo m e tric w a ve s B . km
6 MF 3 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 k H zH e c to m e tric w a ve s B . hm
7 HF 3 to 3 0 M H z D e c a m e tric w a ve s B. dam
8 VHF 3 0 to 3 0 0 M H z M e tric w a ve s B. m
9 UHF 3 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 M H zD e c im e tric w a ve s B. dm
10 SHF 3 to 3 0 G H z C e ntim e tric w a ve s B . cm
11 EHF 3 0 to 3 0 0 G H z M ilim e tric w a ve s B. mm
12 3 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 G HDz e c im ilim e tric w a ve s

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ii) Microwave Frequency Band used in Practical Systems :
2, 6 and 7 GHz Frequency Bands are used for Intercity Backbone routes.
Nominal Hop Distances 25 – 40 Km
15,18 and 23 GHz Frequency Bands are used for Access Network
Nominal Hop Distance 1 – 10 Km.
: Government will allocate spot Frequency. Index of Radios
will be decided by Spot frequency. Channel No will be calculated using allocated spot
frequency. To obtain the same applications have to be forwarded to the following
government bodies :
iii) SACFA (Standing Advisory Committee for Frequency Allocation) –
It is a government Wing which allocates frequency and also gives tower ht clearance.
Before allocation Of frequency it checks not to cause interference to existing users.
Before giving tower

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height clearance it checks that it should not cause obstruction to exiting MW link,
should not be in funnel zone of Aircraft etc.

iv) WPC (Wireless Planning Committee) - It is a government wing which takes

charges from operator for use of MW frequency pair. Charges are based on the

and width used and annual gross revenue.

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v) Frequency & Bandwidth :
a) Introduction :
The implementation of digital LOS radio links has accelerated due to transition of
telephone network to an all digital network. The digital network is based on a PCM
waveform, which when compared to analog FDM is wasteful of bandwidth. A nominal
4-kHz voice channel on an FDM baseband system occupies about 4-kHz of
bandwidth. On an FDM/FM radiolink, by rough estimation we can say it occupies
about 16 kHz.
In conventional PCM baseband system, allowing 1 bit per Hz of
bandwidth, a 4-KHz voice channel roughly requires 64kHz (64 kbps) of bandwidth.
This is derived using Nyquist sampling rate of 8000 / sec (4000 Hz x 2) and each
sample is assigned an 8-bit code word, thus 8000 x 8 bits per second or 64 kbps.
Thus it is essential to select modulation techniques that are bandwidth conservative.

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b) Modulation techniques used :
The digital modulation schemes such as FSK, BPSK/QPSk, 8-ary PSK, 4-QAM, 8 –
QAM and 16-QAM are most commonly used. For eg the table shows comparision of
Analog and digital modulation techniques:
600 channel FM Analog 16 QAM Digital
Bandwidth 10 MHz 10 MHz
Voice Channel Capacity 600 384
Max Data Capacity 11.52Mbps 25 Mbps
E1 capacity 10 12
System Gain 110.4 dB 111.5 dB

c) Bandwidth Requirement :
As per the no. of channel requirements the bandwidth of the system can be decided.
For example for 4mbps I.e. 60 nos of 64 kbps channels I.e. 4 Mbps , bandwidth of of
3.5MHz is required and so on as mentioned below:
7 MHz for 8 Mbps, 14 MHz for 16 Mbps and so on.

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Terminologies

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Terminologies

i.Azimuth and Importance of North direction


It is angle of antenna direction w.r.t. north in clockwise direction. This is also known as
bearing.

ii.AMSL
Above mean sea level. An antenna at AMSL 20m means it is 20meter higher than the mean
sea level.

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Terminologies
iii.db, dbm
db=it is logarithmic ratio
db = 10 log P1/P2.

3db loss of power is power reduced to half.

dbm is the logarithmic ratio of power w.r.t 1. miliwatt


1 mW power in dbm is =10 log 1mW/1mW = 10 log 0 = 0dbm
1 W power in dbm is = 10 log 10W/1mW =30dbm

iv) Antenna Gain and Beam width


Beam width of an antenna is the angle in which antenna radiates energy.

Antenna Gain is measured w.r.t. isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna radiates power in all direction.
In practical system the energy needs to be radiated in the desired direction in desired beam width. Thus
the total energy confined in the smaller aperture. Unit of antenna gain is dbi.

Antenna Gain Beam width


= 17.6 + 20 * log10 (f *d) dBi
Where d= Antennae Diameter in Meter and f= Frequency in GHz

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Terminologies

v) AGC

AGC stands for Automatic Gain Control. Media between two antennae in MW system is variable
thus the path loss. MW system is designed in such a way that it can add or reduces the gain to
compensate the variation in path loss. This mechanism is known as AGC system.

vi) Spot frequency

MW system transmits information after


modulation on carrier frequency from one point to another. The carrier frequency is known as spot
frequency. We need to set a spot frequency in MW system (also known as channel number).

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Terminologies

iversity

t is used to improve system performance. There are two types of


diversity used.
1. Space Diversity
2. Frequency Diversity F1

F2

Space Frequency
Diversity Diversity

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Free Space Propagation

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Free Space propagation
i. Free Space Propagation :
As described earlier characteristics of Microwave is very much similar to light waves.
Velocity of Microwaves is same as velocity of light waves. Velocity of the light (C) is
3x 108 meter per second.
Also we know that C = F * λ (F=frequency and λ = wavelength).
As the EM wave travels in free space it looses energy. Free Space transmission loss
is the least possible loss between a transmitter and a receiver. The same can be
defined by the formula:
P loss = 32.4 + 20 log f *d
where f is Frequency in MHz and d is Distance in KM

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Free Space propagation
ii) Importance of Free Space Loss :
As described free space loss is the loss calculated in space thus it is minimum loss
incurred when EM waves travels a distance. Loss when EM waves travels the same
distance in other media will be higher than the loss in free space. Exact loss can be
calculated by giving other external environmental inputs to planning tool.

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Free Space Loss

L fs = 92.45 + 20 ⋅ log(d ⋅ f )
Examples
39 GHz 26 GHz
d=1km ---> L = 124 dBm d=1km ---> L = 121 dBm
d=2km ---> L = 130 dBm d=2km ---> L = 127 dBm

For 39 GHz, L ≅ 118 + 6d For 26 GHz, L ≅ 115 + 6d

For 23 GHz, L ≅ 120 + 6d For 18 GHz, L ≅ 112 + 6d

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Antenna Basics

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vi) Antenna Design for Microwave Systems :
a) Introduction :
Antennas form the link between the guided waves and the free space part of a radio
or microwave system. The guided parts are cables or waveguides to and from the
transmitter and receiver.
b) Purpose of Antennas :
The purpose of a transmitting antenna is to efficiently transform the current in a circuit
or waveguide into radiated radio or microwave energy. The purpose of a receiving
antenna is to efficiently accept the radiated energy and convert it to guided form for
detection and processing by a receiver.
c) Types of Antenna :
Antennas for radio and microwave system falls into two broad categories depending
on the degree to which the radiation is confined.

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Microwave and satellite communications use pencil beam antennas where the
radiation is confined to one narrow beam of energy, whereas Mobile communications
and broadcasting use omni directional pattern in the horizontal plane and toroidal
pattern in the vertical plane. At microwave frequencies the most common type of
pencil beam antenna is a medium to large size reflector antenna. This consists of a
reflector, or, mirror which collimates the signal from a feed horn at the focus of the
reflector. These are aperture antennas because the basic radiating element is an
Aperture.

Pencil Beam
Reflector Antenna Toroidal Beam

& Feed Horn


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d) Size and Gain of Microwave Antenna :
The axi-symmetric parabolic reflector with a feed at the focus of the paraboloid is the
simplest type of reflector antenna used in microwave application. The paraboloid has
the property that energy from the feed horn at the focus F goes to the point P on the
surface where it is reflected parallel to the axis to arrive at a point A on the imaginary
aperture plane. The equation describing the surface is :
r 4F( F – z ) where F is the focal length. At the
Edge of the reflector the relationship between the
P A
focal length and the diameter D is given by :
r
F / D = ¼ cot (θ /2)
F
D
The depth of the paraboloid is specified by its F/D ratio. θ
z
Common sizes for microwave reflector antennas are
F
between F/D =0.25 which makes θ = 90°, to F/D =0.5
which gives θ = 53°.

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The peak gain of the reflector antenna is calculated as :
G = 4Π X effective aperture area / λ   = ( Π D / λ )
Hence more the gain larger will be the size of the antenna used.

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deciBel

G=?
Pout mW Gain is a referenced Value without
G= = measurements units
Pin Pout
Pin mW

When trying to calculate


Pin Pou
cascade amplifiers in most
cases it will be difficult using 1 = 0 dB
the linear way (long numbers 2 = 3 dB
3 = 4.7 dB
and most of the time not 4 = 6 dB
round ones).This is the 5 = 7 dB
6 = 7.7 dB
reason
Power for working
measurements in
units in a logarithmical world is 7 = 8.5 dB
decibels.
dBm (in reference to 1mW) or dBW (in reference to 1W). 8 = 9 dB
1mW = -30dBW = 0dBm 9 = 9.5 dB
G=10Log(Pout/Pin) [dB]
1W = 0dBW = 30dBm
10 = 10 dB
A reminder
Log ( A × B ) = LogA + LogB
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Antennas Basics

 Definition
− λ = wavelength = c/f f = 3.5 GHz ⇒ λ = 8.571
cm
- The device used to guide RF energy from one point to another one, with minimum
- Transmission line
attenuation, heat and radiation losses.
Guides the energy

- The structure associated with the region of transition between a guided wave and
- Radio antenna
a free space wave, or vice versa.
Radiates/receives energy

Generator

Transmission line
(spacing between wires is only
a fraction of the wave length) Antenna
(separation between wires
is in the range of one or
more wave lengths)
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Directivity

- Isotropic antenna (theoretical)

The energy fed into the antenna is radiated


in the whole space.
17 dBm (50mW)
Generator A receiver RCV, located in the far field of the
transmitter, gets the basic element of energy
generated by the presence of 17dBm (50mW) in
the whole space.

RCV

- Non-isotropic antenna (real)

RCV The energy fed into the antenna is radiated only


in part of the space.
A receiver RCV, located in the far field of the
17 dBm (50mW)
Generator transmitter, gets the basic element of energy
generated by the presence of 17dBm (50mW) in
the defined volume, which is equivalent with the
presence of much more energy isotropically
distributed.

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- Non-isotropic antenna (real)

RCV
For same amount of energy fed into the antenna, a
non-isotropic antenna will transmit its signal over
17 dBm (50mW) longer distances.
Generator
Non-isotropic antennas are characterized by their
capability to focus the transmitted energy,
expressed by the antenna gain
Volume (radiation) of subject antenna
Antenna gain = 10 Log [dBi]
volume (radiation) of isotropic antenna

e.g. - An antenna with 3dBi gain, radiates its energy


into 50% of the space.
Conclusion - A 3dBi antenna fed with
17 dBm (50mW)
Generator 17dBm behaves (in its active field) as an isotropic
antenna fed with 20dBm
Even if, in fact, the antenna radiates only 17 dBm,
it is said that it radiates 20 dBm EIRP (Equivalent
Isotropic Radiated Power)
RCV

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Radiation Patterns for some
antennas

Gain Geometry Radiation Pattern Half Power Beam


(dBi) Width (HPBW)

Horizontal Vertical

18 ±18º ±18º

35 ±2.5º ±2.5º

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Antenna Pattern

at 3.500000 GHz

0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
-180 -120 -60 0 60 120 180

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Fresnel Zone

A family of ellipsoids that can be constructed between a transmitter


and a receiver by joining all the various ways of the destructives
electromagnetic waves, in reference to the direct line of transmission.

The circles indicate the geometric place of


all the waves that passed the way: d'1+d'2

d'1 d'2

Transmitter Receiver

d1 d2

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Fresnel Zone

The radius of each of the circles in the figure is


calculated using the following equation:

nλd1d 2
rn =
d1 + d 2
Base Antenna
site

P ossible obtructor
T erminal rF: 1st Fresnel zone
Antenna site radius

d2: distance from d1 distance from Base to


Terminal: 1.2Km obcstacle: 1.8Km

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Fresnel Zone

L = 20 dB
L = 6 dB

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Fresnel Zone Tables

3.5GHz 50 200 700 1200 1700 2200 2700 3200 3700 4200 4700 5200 5700 6200 6700 7200 7700 8200 8700 9200 97

50 1.5 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2

200 1.9 2.9 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4

700 2.0 3.7 5.5 6.2 6.5 6.7 6.9 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.2 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.4 7.5 7.5 7

1200 2.0 3.8 6.2 7.2 7.8 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 8.9 9.1 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.5 9.5 9.5

1700 2.0 3.9 6.5 7.8 8.5 9.1 9.5 9.8 10.0 10.2 10.3 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.9 11.0 11.0

2200 2.0 4.0 6.7 8.2 9.1 9.7 10.2 10.6 10.9 11.1 11.3 11.5 11.7 11.8 11.9 12.0 12.1 12.2

2700 2.1 4.0 6.9 8.4 9.5 10.2 10.8 11.2 11.6 11.9 12.1 12.3 12.5 12.7 12.8 13.0 13.1

3200 2.1 4.0 7.0 8.6 9.8 10.6 11.2 11.7 12.1 12.5 12.8 13.0 13.3 13.5 13.6 13.8

3700 2.1 4.0 7.1 8.8 10.0 10.9 11.6 12.1 12.6 13.0 13.3 13.6 13.9 14.1 14.3

4200 2.1 4.0 7.2 8.9 10.2 11.1 11.9 12.5 13.0 13.4 13.8 14.1 14.4 14.6

4700 2.1 4.1 7.2 9.1 10.3 11.3 12.1 12.8 13.3 13.8 14.2 14.5 14.9

5200 2.1 4.1 7.3 9.1 10.5 11.5 12.3 13.0 13.6 14.1 14.5 14.9

5700 2.1 4.1 7.3 9.2 10.6 11.7 12.5 13.3 13.9 14.4 14.9

6200 2.1 4.1 7.3 9.3 10.7 11.8 12.7 13.5 14.1 14.6

6700 2.1 4.1 7.4 9.3 10.8 11.9 12.8 13.6 14.3

7200 2.1 4.1 7.4 9.4 10.9 12.0 13.0 13.8

7700 2.1 4.1 7.4 9.4 10.9 12.1 13.1

8200 2.1 4.1 7.4 9.5 11.0 12.2

8700 2.1 4.1 7.5 9.5 11.0

9200 2.1 4.1 7.5 9.5

9700 2.1 4.1 7.5

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3.5 GHz vs. 26 GHz – Fresenel Zone

100
90

80

70
height (m)

60
26GHz
50
3.5GHz
40
`30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Range (km)

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Modulations Technologies

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Introduction

Examples for modulation techniques:


– Quadrate Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
– Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
– Quadrate Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
– Etc.

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Modulation Techniques - Basic
Techniques

carrier
• Data bits modulate (modify) a carrier signal
• Basic modulation techniques message(t)
modulator transmitted
signal
• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Phase

data bits 0 1 0 0 1

unmodulated
carrier

Amplitude Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Modulation
(FSK)

(Differential) Phase
Modulation (DPSK)

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Modulation Techniques - Basic Techniques

• Data bits are represented over the transmission


channel by SYMBOLS
• Symbol rate is expressed in Baud

Jean Maurice Emile BAUDOT


(1845 - 1903)
- 1874 - Baudot code - 5 bits - for
use with telegraphs (more
economical than Morse
code)
- 1894 - Telegraph multiplexer

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Modulation Techniques –
Symbols

Symbol
• Is a sinusoidal signal (carrier) with specific parameters
dictated by the bit(s), transmitted for finite period of
time.
• Carrier parameters do not change for the duration of
the symbol
• Even if the symbol itself is comprised of one single
frequency (the carrier), the fact that it is transmitted
over a finite period of time generates an infinite
spectrum, centered on the carrier frequency.

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57
Modulation Techniques - Symbols

Time domain Frequency domain

unmodulated
carrier fc f

Modulated
carrier fc
(symbols) 1 • •2 f
T T

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Modulation Techniques - Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

• QAM is a modulation modifying the phase and


the amplitude of the carrier signal
• QAM symbols are represented by the carrier
signal being transmitted with specific phase /
amplitude (dictated by the message), for finite
periods of time.

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59
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM)
Symbol 1 is a
cosine
waveform of:
• Polar Coordinates symbol 1 - amplitude A1
A1 - phase ϕ
• Symbol presentation
A
• Amplitude – distance from origin ϕ
A1 cos ω t
• Phase – Angle from positve x axis
A1cos ω t
(phase 0;
reference)
ϕ ω
t

Symbol 1 = A1cos(ω t -
• Symbol Generation ϕ )

• For the generation of such symbols, there is a need for an oscillator


able to modify its phase based on the symbol that has to be
transmitted  not a very trivial topic.
• Symbol reception
• To identify the symbol, the receiver needs a reference carrier, in phase with
the carrier used by the transmitter (coherent demodulation).

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60
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
• I/Q coordinates (a bit of trigonometry)
cos(ω t - ϕ ) = cos ω t*cos ϕ + sin ω t*sin ϕ
As ϕ is constant :
cos(ω t - ϕ ) = Kc*cos ω t + Ks*sin
cos ϕ = constant = Kc
ω t
sin ϕ = constant = Ks
• Symbol representation
• A cosine waveform of frequency ω t with any specific phase can be
represented as the sum of a sine and a cosine waveforms of same
frequency ω t.
• The phase of the resultant signal is dictated by the relative amplitudes of
the sine and cosine waveforms, through “Kc = cosine amplitude = cos ϕ
; Ks = sine amplitude = sin ϕ ”
• By controlling Kc and Ks, any phase of the waveform may be generated.
• A cosine waveform may be identified by its
• In phase (I) component amplitude, Kc (cosine)
• Quadrature phase (Q) component amplitude, Ks (sine)
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
61
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)

• I/Q coordinates
• Examples
A
Q
ϕ= π
4
π
Kc = cos = 0.7
π 4 ω
ϕ=
4
π t
I Ks = sin = 0.7
4
cos(ω t -π ) = 0.7cos ω t + 0.7sin ω t
4

A
ϕ= π
8
π
Kc = cos = 0.9
8 ω
π t
Ks = sin = 0.4
8
cos(ω t -π ) = 0.9cos ω t + 0.4sin ω t
8

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62
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)

• I/Q coordinates
• Symbol Generation
cos(ω t - ϕ ) = Kc*cos ω t + Ks*sin
ωt
Kc Ks

cos ω t cos ω t

π
2 sin ω t
Σ symbol

Easier to implement
• Symbol reception
• The symbol is identified by the relative amplitude of the sine
and cosine components. there is no need for coherent carrier.
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
63
Mapping process

• QAM64 has 64 constellation points

Constellation Point
Q

Constelation
point

• When the mapping


I
process received the
6 bits needed to be
transmitted it divide it
to 3 bits for Q signal
and the other 3 bits
for the I signal. Then it choose the right
constellation point which represent the bits needed
to be transmitted.
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
64
Mapping process

• The bits to be transmitted are 101111.

Q
The bits are divided
Constelation
into 3 bits for Q and 3
bits forpoint
I.
Q level 101 -> Q 111 -> I
The Q signal are at a
I
certain level defined
by the mapping
process.
The I signal is
handled in the same
I level manner.
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
65
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
• QAM constellations (patterns)
number of generated using

number of bits

bit rate / Baud


per symbol

amplitudes

amplitudes

amplitudes
nr. of sine
modulation

rate

phases

cosine
constellation

nr. of
technique
sl ob mys
f o r e b mun

Q
000100 001100 011100 010100 110100 111100 101100 100100
+7

000101 001101 011101 010101 110101 111101 101101 100101


+5

000111 001111 011111 010111 110111 111111 101111 100111


+3

000110 001110 011110 010110 110110 111110 101110 100110


+1
8 8
64QAM 64 6 6/1 9 52 -7 -5 -3 -1 +1 +3 +5 +7
I
000010 001010 011010 010010 110010 111010 101010 100010
(3 bits) (3 bits)
-1

000011 001011 011011 010011 110011 111011 101011 100011


-3

000001 001001 011001 010001 110001 111001 101001 100001


-5

000000 001000 011000 010000 110000 111000 101000 100000


not all
combinations -7
are used

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Q/I formats

• Q and I are 90º difference from each other.


• Each one of those signals is basically enhanced
(Quadurate) Amplitude Modulation.
• Due to the fact the signals have 90º they will not
interfere each other if they are combined.
• Combination of those signals will provide us …..

a signal with Amplitude and Phase changes !

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67
Link Budget

i) Transmit Power, Receiver Sensitivity & Fade Margin


a. Transmit Power :
This is the RF power which is transmitted by RF unit.

b. Receiver Sensitivity :
This is the minimum power, which can be sensed by RF unit and signals can be
received.

c. Fade Margin :
Fade Margin = Receiver Threshold (10E-6) - Actual received power

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Link Budget

ii) Link Budget


The Link Budget sums all attenuations and amplifications of the signal between the
transmitter output and receiver input terminals. This can be illustrated in the figure
below:
Power Output
Power
Propagation Loss
and attenuation
Antenna
Feeder Gain
Loss Feeder Received
Antenna Loss Power
Gain
Fading
Margin
Receiver 4dB
Threshold

Distance

Transmitted & Received Power

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69
Link Budget
As illustrated in the figure the received Power in the radio link terminal can be
calculated as follows :
Pin = Pout – Σ AF + Σ G – ABF – A0 – AG – AL
Where Pin = Received Power (dBm)
Pout = Transmitted Power (dBm)
AF = Antenna Feeder Loss (dB)
G = Antenna Gain (dBi)
ABF = Free space Loss (dB) (between isotropic antennas)
A0 = Obstacle Loss (dB)
AG = Gas Attenuation (dB)
AL = Additional Loss (dB)

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70
Noise and sensitivity

To every transmitted signal a thermal noise is added, the thermal noise is marked by the
letter N and defined by Boltsman constant [K] ( K = 1.38 ×10− 23 ) multiple the temperature in
Kelvin [T] (room temperature equal to 290°) multiple the bandwidth in MHz [B]. Or in other
words… (in the linear way)
N = K ×T × B
in the logarithmical way …
Signal to Noise Ration (SNR) defined as the ratio between the signal strength and the noise
strength.
Every active system adds a certain noise to the signal the parameter which described it call
Noise Figure (NF). Noise figure defined as the ratio between the input SNR to the output
SNR.

NF = SNR − SNR IN OUT

NF = S IN − N IN − SNROUT
S IN = N IN + NF + SNROUT
S IN
= −114 +10 LogB + NF + SNROUT

N = 10 Log ( K × T ) + 10 LogB = −114 + 10 LogB


Proprietary & Confidential Slide
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 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

Power Power
received received
Required
received
power
Sensitivity Sensitivity SNR

SNR SNR
External
interference
Noise floor Noise floor
{thermal
noise +
implementation
){noise (NF

Calculating receiver sensitivity )Note: SNR is a function of rate; values range from 5 dB to 30 dB(

:For correct operation Pr ≥ interference + SNR

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72
2 Mbps Signal

1. Construction of 2Mbps signal


i. Voice frequency
ii. Sampling
iii. Qunatization
iv. Digitization
v. 64 kbps signal Multiplexing.
vi. PDH
vii. SDH

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73
Voice Frequency

Energy

Frequency in Hz

0 300 3400 4000

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Sampling

Voltage

Time

Voltage

Time

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75
Quantization

Before Quantization After Quantization

Fixed
256no’s
Voltage
levels

Time

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Digitization

Each sample will be


represented by 8 bits

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

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64 kbps Multiplexing

0
1
2
3
4 Mu
ltip
lex 1 2 3 4 5 27 28 29 30 31

er
25 2Mbps stream
26
27
28
29
30
31

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78
PDH

2Mbps stream

1
2 2/8
3 Multiplexer
4

2
3 8 / 32
8Mbps stream 4 Multiplexer

2
32 / 140
32 Mbps stream 3 140 Mbps stream
Multiplexer
4

M=Multiplexer
Proprietary & Confidential Slide
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SDH

2Mbps stream 2Mbps stream

1
1
2
2 STM-1 STM-1
ADM

20 20
21 21

2Mbps stream

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PDH- Plesynchronous Digital
Hierarchy
i.

Level Rate(Mb/s) E1
0 0.064 -
1 2.048 1
2 8.448 4
3 34.368 16
4 139.264 64

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SDH-Synchronous digital Hierarchy

Level Rate(Mb/s) E1
STM-1 155.52 63
STM-4 622.08 252
STM-8 1244.16 504
STM-16 2488.32 1008
STM-64 ~10GHz 4032

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