What are the environmental issues associated with urban change?

Urban change can put increasing pressures on the environment including:

Traffic congestion Atmospheric pollution Water pollution Waste disposal Urban dereliction

Objectives for this topic

At the end of this topic you should be able to: Explain the links between urban change and the resulting environmental issues. Describe the main impact of these environmental issues. Outline the challenges involved in managing these environmental issues Identify some examples of attempts to reduce the impact of urban change on the environment.

The Brown Agenda Launched by UN in 1992 at same time as Rio Earth Summit
Drew attention to consequences of development and urban growth on built environments. Major issues raised Lack of safe water, sanitation and sewage disposal (drainage) Inadequate management of solid and hazardous waste. Incidence of traffic, industrial and environmental accidents. Uncontrolled emissions into the atmosphere. The occupation of unsafe land by shanty towns.

Water
Water is essential for human survival and for urban growth. Water demand is rising in most areas. What do we use it for? Why do you think MEDCs use more water than LEDCs? Major problem is that urban water supplies are readily contaminated by industrial waste, sewage and pollution carried in urban runoff. In rural areas agricultural practices such as applying manure and artificial fertilisers can lead to lethal chemicals seeping into reservoirs and groundwater stores. It is difficult to collect and store water to ensure a continuous supply during long dry seasons.

Problems with a high demand for water:

Cities such as London and Mexico are slowly sinking as the groundwater is being removed allowing underlying rocks to compress. M.C. has subsided by 7m since 1940. Increased areas of land are given over to reservoirs e.g. The Lea Valley in London. Water is transported ever greater distances so potentially depriving the source area.

Waste
Urban areas create huge quantities of solid waste, particularly in MEDCs due to increasing consumption and throwaway societies. Recycling waste is the obvious solution but it is not always done to its full potential due to cost and technological reasons. The challenge remains as to what to do with non-recyclable waste, particularly toxic waste.

Waste problems for urban centres:

Difficulties in locating and establishing landfill sites. Pollution from landfill sites (methane and groundwater pollution). Very high cost. High transportation costs and the resulting air pollution (traffic fumes) Risk of vermin and disease from rubbish waiting to be collected.

Comparison of waste production MEDCs and LEDCs

MEDC Waste per person (kg/year) composed of Organic matter Paper Plastics 800-1200 10% 25% 35% LEDC 100-340 75% 2% 2%

Glass
Metals Others

15%
10% 5%

3%
3% 15%

Traffic and Transport

The movement of people and goods is a vital aspect of urban areas. The more efficient the movement the better it is for the environment and the people. Three specific issues can be identified with this
Traffic congestion Oil consumption Public vs Private transport

Traffic congestion
A major feature of most modern urban areas. Caused by a range of factors including: outdated road networks, rise in cars, concentration of jobs and services in the core. Resulting problems include: waste of time and fuel, pollution, noise, stress, danger to pedestrians, accidents. Paratransit is a major problem in many LEDC Paratransit: mode of transport which does not follow fixed routes or timetables e.g. Rickshaws, cities minibuses, pedicabs. A major part of the informal
economy in LEDC cities

Possible solutions to traffic congestion problems

Segregation Parking Vehicle control Public transport Traffic Information systems
However, these solutions are more likely to prove effective in MEDC than LEDC cities due to the high incidence of paratransit in LEDCs.

Air pollution
Has been reduced in MEDCs due to deindustrialisation and clean air legislation but has shifted to LEDCs. Major polluters are: Vehicles Industry Power stations Domestic heating Major concerns are the effects on : Human health and wildlife Contribution to global warming

The 3 main pollutants causing serious risk to human health are suspended particles (soot, smoke, dust and liquid particles), sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
Pollutant Effects on health Sulpher dioxide and smoke Potential health effects include temporary respiratory in sensitive groups exposed to high levels for short periods and an increased prevalence of respiratory problems for long term exposure. Nitrogen dioxide Ozone Acute exposure can cause transient respiratory problems: children and asthmatics are at greatest risk. High levels increase susceptibility to infections and respiratory disease; can cause irritation of eyes, nose and throat, chest discomfort, coughs and headaches. Reduces oxygen supply to the body, impairing physical coordination, vision and judgment; affects central nervous and cardiovascular systems; those with heart disease are at most risk

Carbon monoxide

 The net results of air pollution are as follows:

Increase in number of deaths (est 8000 per year in Delhi). Increase in rates of lung disease (40% more cases of pneumonia occur in people living near motorways in England). Expensive hospitalisation. Absence from work. Dirty buildings = Increased cleaning costs. Smogs. Acid rain Greenhouse effect. General environmental damage to a range of vegetation.

Urban dereliction and Brownfield sites.

Derelict land is an old name for areas now called Brownfield sites. These are areas where buildings have been abandoned. They are often in a state of disrepair. Urban areas are dynamic and frequently changing, one negative effect of this dereliction which has 3 main contributory causes: Inevitable ageing and decay of buildings with the passage of time. Movement of urban activities to better and more profitable locations Basic changes in an urban economy brought about by the collapse of certain notable activities.

Dereliction is often a temporary phase and much derelict land is reclaimed for things like housing, tourism, industry etc. Can you think of any examples?

Greenfield: Land never built on, it is usually green fields and found around
the outskirts of an urban area. It is sometimes known as greenbelt land. If it is greenbelt then it is not allowed to be built upon.

13% of England cover Green Belts. The largest Green Belt is the London Green Belt, at about 486,000 hectares. The smallest Green Belt is the Burton-Swadlincote Green Belt at just 700 hectares.

 Brownfield: Land previously used for urban developments e.g. Factories, terraced housing etc.

The government prefers the use of Brownfield sites for new developments. This means they regularly finance Enterprise Zones In England government policy is that 60% of all new homes should be built on Brownfield land
Can you foresee any problems with this idea?

Brownfield sites

Greenfield sites

Derelict sites in urban areas

New sites, usually on agricultural land in green belts around urban areas.
Land is not available unless planning permission has been obtained; there will usually be a public enquiry and a delay of several years which will add to costs. Housing will be at a relatively low density compared with brownfield sites; there is a great demand for such housing as it is in fashionable areas. Infrastructure costs are high as new sewerage, water, gas and electricity supplies have to be considered; similarly new schools and medical facilities may be needed. Sites tend to be large. The environment is harmed. New service provision is required.

The land is available, but can be costly to reclaim if it has been polluted by industrial use; this information may not be readily available. Housing is likely to be built at high density to reflect the cost of the land; there is less demand for such housing as it is in less fashionable areas. Infrastructure is usually present, though existing facilities can become overloaded.

Sites tend to be small patches of land. The environment is improved. Existing services close by.

Tasks
Make a list of the issues involved that make using brownfield sites difficult or unpopular.

Read the information on building on the floodplain (pg 199) and outline the key issues.
Complete the London and Mumbai comparison activity. (pg 202) Read the case studies in the topic 3 booklet: The environmental issues associated with urban change. You should be looking at Car Share and BART in San Francisco, Reducing air pollution and The New East Manchester Plan. Make appropriate notes so that you can remember the key points to use as examples in exam questions.

 For each of the categories you will need to produce a fact file. It should include the following: A range of visual material showing the problems. 2 contrasting cities, one MEDC city and one LEDC city. Show how these pressures/problems effect the quality of life of people who live in the cities by looking at the environmental, social and economic implications.

 Specific city websites can be used to identify a range of issues. General websites such as:
www.un.org (UN- millennium goals) www.urbanicity.org (citiesonline/europeancities) May be a useful starting point

Issues associated with traffic congestion:

Wikipedia Mexico City, Los Angeles, Bangkok. Google BART (Transport management) www.nexus.org.uk (Tyne and Wear metro) www.metrolink.co.uk (Manchester metro) www.tfl.gov.uk (Transport management in London) www.bbc.co.uk (traffic congestion)

Issues associated with atmospheric pollution

Wikipedia Mexico City, Los Angeles, Sao Paulo, Bangkok. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/urbandevelopment (urban problems).

Issues associated with water pollution:

Wikipedia Cairo, Sao Paulo, Bangkok www.worldbank.org (urban problems) www.wateraid.org.uk

Issues associated with waste disposal

Wikipedia Cairo, Sao Paulo, Bangkok. Google managing waste

Issues associated with urban dereliction

Wikipedia Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Bangkok. www.worldbank.org (slums, self help schemes, urban problems) www.urbansplash.co.uk (regeneration of derelict industrial sites in the UK).