INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Topic ONE

What is Research?

Research can be defined as an organised, systematic, critical, objective, scientific investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it

What is Research?

What do we mean by organized and systematic?

Research must be well planned

For example, we need to develop our theoretical framework before we start research design; we need to develop research design before carrying out actual research

Research must adopt a specific method and techniques

Suitability of research method and techniques depends on our research question and research objectives For example, we need to carry out literature review before we can develop our theoretical framework, and only when our theoretical framework is satisfactory, we then create our hypothesis statements

Research must follow ordered steps

What is Research?

What do we mean by being critical?

As researchers, we must question every information we uncover

Can we trust the source of the information? Does the information make sense? Are there other explanations to challenge this information?

As researchers, we must not easily believe what we uncover

Have we made sure our measurement instruments are valid and reliable? Have we collected enough evidence (is our sample size big enough)? What is the possibility that we may be wrong to believe what we have uncovered?

As researchers, we must do tests to verify what we want to conclude

What is Research?

What do we mean by being objective?

As

researchers, we cannot allow our personal beliefs and judgments interfere with the decisions we make in our research
In

quantitative research, we develop and use valid and reliable instruments to objectively measure (capture) data; it does not matter who uses these instruments, we should get the same results

As

researchers, we cannot allow our personal beliefs and judgments influence the outcome of our research

Scientific Research

In this course, research refers to scientific research a process of establishing knowledge through validated, verified and reliable empirical data

Validity refers to relevance, appropriateness

For example, a thermometer is a valid (appropriate) instrument to measure body temperature For example, an applicant may be qualified for an executive post by showing her degree and academic transcript

Verification refers to ability to show proof (evidence)

Reliability refers to integrity, consistency (can be trusted)

For example, if we were to step onto a weighing scale five times, and it consistently display the same body weight, then the weighing scale is reliable

What is Science?

Science is the systematic study of anything that can be examined, tested, and verified
Knowledge

based on science are those that are logical (make sense) and were derived by analyzing empirical evidence

Science is organized knowledge subject to empirical disproof

Even

if scientific knowledge is widely accepted, they are continuously challenged

What is Science?

Central components of science

Empiricism
Believe

(the use of empirical evidence)

(the practice of logical reasoning)

in what can be seen, measured and tested

Rationalism
Believe

in what make sense, and explained through

logic
Skepticism
Always

(possessing a skeptical attitude)

be skeptical about everything; do not easily believe what you read, see or hear

Reasoning

Reasoning is the process of coming to a conclusion; how did our brains figure out what we believe There are two basic ways we reason
Inductive

reasoning Deductive reasoning

Induction

Inductive reasoning is the process of arriving at a conclusion based on a set of observations Induction is a process where we observe details of a certain phenomena and based on the evidences we have collected and analysed, we arrive at conclusions We build theories from data we collect and analyze

Induction

Induce means to add up (individual evidences add up to become a theory) Inductive research begins its research process with studying specific data, which is then used to develop (induce) general explanation (a theory) to account for the data For example, throughout my life, every crow I come across is black in color; therefore, I induce that all crows are black in color The power of inductive reasoning does not lie in its ability to prove (in fact, it cannot be used to provide proof); inductive reasoning is valuable because it allows us to form ideas

Deduction

Deduct means to reduce

use a general theory to develop a hypothesis a hypothesis is unique example of a general theory Evidence to support a hypothesis strengthen a general theory

Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logically generalizing from a known fact A type of research in which a specific expectation is deduced from a general theoretical premise and then tested with data that have been collected for their purpose A deductive researcher states her expectations in advance and then designs a fair test of those expectations

Deduction
The following are examples of how deductive researchers use theory and hypothesis to do research Generalization
Punishment will reduce the propensity to commit crime Extrinsic rewards (such as money) will not increase motivation to work

Hypothesis
Spouse abusers who are arrested and punished are less likely to repeat abuse Rise in salary will not increase employee motivation

Falsification

Sir Karl Popper stated that science advances by deductive falsification through a process of "conjectures and refutations Falsifiability is an important concept in the philosophy of science that amounts to the apparently paradoxical idea that a proposition or theory cannot be scientific if it does not admit consideration of the possibility of its being false.

Falsification

"Falsifiable" does not mean "false A theory should be scientific if and only if it is falsifiable For a proposition to be falsifiable, it must be possible in principle to make an observation that would show the proposition to be false, even if that observation has not been made For example, the proposition "All crows are black" would be falsified by observing one white crow.

Quantitative verses Qualitative Research

Research methodology involves epistemology of doing research and its influence of what methods to use Each research method available to researchers is created and designed based on a distinguished belief of how truth and understanding can be established

Is there only one (shared) Reality or each of us creates our own reality? Can meaning and what we believe is real be independent from the researcher?

Quantitative verses Qualitative Research

Qualitative
Inductive inquiry Understanding social phenomena A-theoretical or Grounded theory Holistic inquiry

Quantitative
Deductive inquiry Relationships, effects and causes Theory based Focused on individual variables

Context specific
Observer as participant

Context-free
Detached role of researcher

Narrative description

Statistical analysis

Characteristics of Scientific Research

Distinguishing characteristics Purposive

Research should have clearly defined objective (for example: to see if there is a relationship between listening to music and digestion) Research should have a research objective and research question; a burning question that drives our research From the beginning of the research process to its conclusion, effort must be made to ensure errors are eliminated in every procedure we use Carefulness, thoroughness and leave no stones unturned Research hypothesis / theory chosen can be tested to be true or false Sunsets are beautiful, Fishes are happy when they are young and Ghosts like to scare people cannot be tested

Rigor

Testability

Characteristics of Scientific Research

Distinguishing characteristics Replicability

Scientific research must be designed to be replicated by others or replicable in other places and at other times Replicability of a research is a quality that if a research is repeated, we will be able to derive the same result (outcome) This is a measure of how close the measure is to the real value being measured (for example, a weighing machine may display your weight to be 68 kilogram whereas your actual weight is 67.9 kilogram; this is pretty accurate)

Precision

Characteristics of Scientific Research

Distinguishing characteristics Confidence

Most test results cannot claim that it describes all cases. There might be aberrations (random variations) that does not conform to the results. Therefore, test results must state the level of confidence (pvalue) A 95 % level of confidence means that there is a probability of being correct 95 % of the time, and there is a probability of being wrong 5 % of the time Results must be based on facts and not emotional values. The conduct of the research must not be influenced by biasness or preconceived notions of the researcher. Any researcher that carries out the exact research should get the same results. The focus and success of research are based on the quality of the measurement instrument (validity, reliability) and not on the qualities of the researcher

Objectivity

Distinguishing characteristics

Generalisability

The goal of any scientific research is to create or strengthen theories and develop scientific laws that can explain the laws that govern this universe we live The value and strength of a theory is its ability to explain a phenomena in many context (situations) Each scientific research must be designed to test a very specific phenomenon with clearly defined boundaries and limitations Research objective must be very focused and simple (not many variables tested)

Parsimony

Types of Research

What differentiates applied research and basic research is not the methods used but its purpose
Applied
Solve

Research

current problem demanding a timely solution

Basic
To

(fundamental or pure) Research

generate a body of knowledge by trying to comprehend how certain problems that occur can be solved

General Methods of Research

There are many widely acceptable methods to carrying out research There is no best method The suitability of each method depends on the research question and research objective

General Methods of Research

Experimental research

Experiments are performed in an artificial environment where variables can be fully controlled by the researcher Experimental variables are deliberately manipulated to determine the effects of that variation
This approach is similar to experimental research in that one or more experimental variables are manipulated Rather than having participants randomly assigned to experimental treatment, naturally assembled groups are used in the research

Quasi-Experimental research

General Methods of Research

Survey research

No experimental variables manipulated Observation or self-administered questionnaires are used to collect data Study a problem, issue, a phenomena that took place in the past Information collected from the past serve as data to be interpreted
In depth, analytical description of a specific culture Try to answer the question of (1) how culture affects behavior, and (2) how cultural processes develop through time

Historical research

Ethnographic research

General Methods of Research

Observation
In

naturalistic observational research, the observer does not intervene with what she is trying to study The researcher is invisible and works hard not to interrupt the natural dynamics of the situation being investigated

Case study
A

case study is an intensive study of a specific group of people or a specific organization. Typically, the case study may involve interviews, observation, experiments and tests.