Chapter 1 - Introduction to Electronics

Introduction

Microelectronics

Integrated Circuits (IC) Technology

Silicon Chip

Microcomputer / Microprocessor

Discrete Circuits

Signals

Signal Processing
Transducers


http://www.eas.asu.edu/~midle/jdsp/jdsp.html

Signals


Voltage Sources




Current Sources



Thevenin & Norton


http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/ClickDevice/refdir.html
http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/Circuit_Design_Lab/circuit_design_lab.html
http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/CircuitElements/vcvs.html
Figure 1.1 Two alternative representations of a signal source: (a) the Thvenin form, and (b) the Norton form.
Figure 1.2 An arbitrary voltage signal v
s
(t).
Figure 1.3 Sine-wave voltage signal of amplitude V
a
and frequency f = 1/T Hz. The angular frequency v = 2pf rad/s.
Signals


Voltage Sources




Current Sources



http://www.clarkson.edu/~svoboda/eta/ClickDevice/super.html
http://javalab.uoregon.edu/dcaley/circuit/Circuit_plugin.html

Signals


Voltage Sources




Current Sources



Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series



Fourier Transform



Fundamental and Harmonics


http://www.educatorscorner.com/experiments/spectral/SpecAn3.shtml


x
frequency
time
Figure 1.4 A symmetrical square-wave signal of amplitude V.
Figure 1.5 The frequency spectrum (also known as the line spectrum) of the periodic square wave of Fig. 1.4.
Figure 1.6 The frequency spectrum of an arbitrary waveform such as that in Fig. 1.2.
Figure 1.7 Sampling the continuous-time analog signal in (a) results in the discrete-time signal in (b).
Def i ni ng t he Si gnal or Func t i on t o be Anal y z ed:
f t ( ) sin e
0
t ( ) u t ( ) .2 cos 7 e
0
t ( ) :=
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2
0
2
f t ( )
t
Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html

Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




Four i er Ser i es ( Tr i gonomet r i c f or m) of f ( t ) :
a
0
1
T
0
T
t f t ( )
(
(
]
d := a
0
0 = av er age v al ue
a
n
2
T
0
T
t f t ( ) cos n e
0
t ( )
(
(
]
d := c os i ne c oef f i c i ent s
n v ar y i ng f r om 1 t o N
10 20 30 40 50 60
0
0.1
a
n
0
n
Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




b
n
2
T
0
T
t f t ( ) sin n e
0
t ( )
(
(
]
d := s i ne c oef f i c i ent s
10 20 30 40 50 60
0
0.5
1
b
n
0
n
Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




Rear r angi ng t ot al ex pr es s i on t o i nc l ude a0 i n t he c ompl et e s pec t r um
a1
n
a
n
:= b1
n
b
n
:=
c1
n
1
2
a1
n
( )
2
b1
n
( )
2
+ := c
0
a
0
:=
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
0.2
0.4
c1
n
0
n
Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




Rec ons t r uc t i on of t i me- domai n f unc t i on f r om t r i g. Four i er s er i es :
f2 t ( )
n1
a
n1
cos n1 e
0
t ( ) b
n1
sin n1 e
0
t ( ) +
( )

a
0
+ :=
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2
0
2
f2 t ( )
f t ( )
t
Frequency Spectrum of Signals


Fourier Series




Four i er Ser i es ( Compl ex For m) of f ( t ) :
w
n
1
2
N c +
|

\
|
|
.
n + :=
C
n
1
T
0
t
t f t ( ) e
i w
n
e
0
t

(
(
]
d :=
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
0.02
0.04
C
n
0
n
Four i er Tr ans f or m of f ( t ) gi v es :
e
1
2
N c +
|

\
|
|
.
1
2
N c + .25 +
|

\
|
|
.
,
1
2
N .. :=
F e ( )
0
t
t f t ( ) e
i e t

(
(
]
d :=
30 20 10 0 10 20 30
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
F e ( )
0
e
The magni t ude of F( e) y i el ds t he c ont i nuous f r equenc y s pec t r um, and i t i s
obv i ous l y of t he f or m of t he s ampl i ng f unc t i on. The v al ue of F( 0) i s A t.
A pl ot of | F( e) | as a f unc t i on of e does not i ndi c at e t he magni t ude of t he
v ol t age pr es ent at any gi v en f r equenc y . What i s i t , t hen? Ex ami nat i on of
F e ( ) s hows t hat , i f f ( t ) i s a v ol t age wav ef or m, t hen F e ( ) i s di mens i onal l y
" v ol t s per uni t f r equenc y , " a c onc ept t hat may be s t r ange t o mos t of us .
Frequency Spectrum of Signals





http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/fourier2/index.html

Frequency Spectrum of Signals





http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/listen/music1.html

http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/phasorlecture2/indexphasorlect2.htm

Figure 1.8 Variation of a particular binary digital signal with time.
Figure 1.9 Block-diagram representation of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
Analog and Digital Signals


Sampling Rate http://www.jhu.edu/%7Esignals/sampling/index.html


Binary number system
http://scholar.hw.ac.uk/site/computing/activity11.asp


Analog-to-Digital Converter
http://www.astro-med.com/knowledge/adc.html
http://www.maxim-ic.com/design_guides/English/AD_CONVERTERS_21.pdf

Digital-to-Analog Converter

http://www.maxim-ic.com/ADCDACRef.cfm
Figure 1.10 (a) Circuit symbol for amplifier. (b) An amplifier with a common terminal (ground) between the input and output ports.
Figure 1.11 (a) A voltage amplifier fed with a signal v
I
(t) and connected to a load resistance R
L
. (b) Transfer characteristic of a linear voltage amplifier
with voltage gain A
v
.
Figure 1.12 An amplifier that requires two dc supplies (shown as batteries) for operation.
Figure 1.13 An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation.
Figure 1.14 (a) An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain linear operation the amplifier is biased as shown,
and the signal amplitude is kept small. Observe that this amplifier is operated from a single power supply, V
DD
.
Figure 1.15 A sketch of the transfer characteristic of the amplifier of Example 1.2. Note that this amplifier is inverting (i.e., with a gain that is negative).
Figure 1.16 Symbol convention employed throughout the book.
Figure 1.17 (a) Circuit model for the voltage amplifier. (b) The voltage amplifier with input signal source and load.
Figure 1.18 Three-stage amplifier for Example 1.3.
Figure 1.19 (a) Small-signal circuit model for a bipolar junction transistor (BJT). (b) The BJT connected as an amplifier with the emitter as a common
terminal between input and output (called a common-emitter amplifier). (c) An alternative small-signal circuit model for the BJT.
Figure E1.20
Figure 1.20 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier. At the test frequency v, the amplifier gain is characterized by its magnitude (V
o
/V
i
)
and phase f.
Figure 1.21 Typical magnitude response of an amplifier. |T(v)| is the magnitude of the amplifier transfer functionthat is, the ratio of the output V
o
(v)
to the input V
i
(v).
Figure 1.22 Two examples of STC networks: (a) a low-pass network and (b) a high-pass network.
Figure 1.23 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type.
Figure 1.24 (a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type.
Figure 1.25 Circuit for Example 1.5.
Figure 1.26 Frequency response for (a) a capacitively coupled amplifier, (b) a direct-coupled amplifier, and (c) a tuned or bandpass amplifier.
Figure 1.27 Use of a capacitor to couple amplifier stages.
Figure E1.23
Figure 1.28 A logic inverter operating from a dc supply V
DD
.
Figure 1.29 Voltage transfer characteristic of an inverter. The VTC is approximated by three straightline segments. Note the four parameters of the VTC
(V
OH
, V
OL
, V
IL
, and V
IH
) and their use in determining the noise margins (NM
H
and NM
L
).
Figure 1.30 The VTC of an ideal inverter.
Figure 1.31 (a) The simplest implementation of a logic inverter using a voltage-controlled switch; (b) equivalent circuit when v
I
is low; and (c)
equivalent circuit when v
I
is high. Note that the switch is assumed to close when v
I
is high.
Figure 1.32 A more elaborate implementation of the logic inverter utilizing two complementary switches. This is the basis of the CMOS inverter studied
in Section 4.10.

Figure 1.33 Another inverter implementation utilizing a double-throw switch to steer the constant current I
EE
to R
C1
(when v
I
is high) or R
C2
(when v
I
is
low). This is the basis of the emitter-coupled logic (ECL) studied in Chapters 7 and 11.

Figure 1.34 Example 1.6: (a) The inverter circuit after the switch opens (i.e., for t > 0+). (b) Waveforms of v
I
and v
O
. Observe that the switch is assumed
to operate instantaneously. v
O
rises exponentially, starting at V
OL
and heading toward V
OH
.
Figure 1.35 Definitions of propagation delays and transition times of the logic inverter.
Figure P1.6
Figure P1.10
Figure P1.14
Figure P1.15
Figure P1.16
Figure P1.17
Figure P1.18
Figure P1.37
Figure P1.58
Figure P1.63
Figure P1.65
Figure P1.67
Figure P1.68
Figure P1.72
Figure P1.77
Figure P1.79
Table 1.1 The Four Amplifier Types
Vin Vout
Voltage gain (Av) = Vout/Vin
Linear - output is proportional to input
Amplifiers
Current amplifiers current gain (Ai) = Iout/Iin


Power amplifiers power gain (Ap) = Pout/Pin
Amplifiers

Signal Amplification

Distortion

Non-Linear Distortion

Symbols

Gains Voltage, Power, Current


Decibels

Amplifier Power Supplies
Efficiency
Volt age_Gain A
v
( )
v
o
v
i
Power_Gain A
p
( )
load_power P
L
( )
input_power P
I
( )
v
o
i
o

v
I
i
I

Current_Gain A
i
( )
i
o
i
I
A
p
A
v
A
i

Volt age_gain_in_decibels 20 log A

v
( )
dB
Colt age_gain_in_decibels 20 log A
i
( )
dB
Power_gain_in_decibels 10 log A
p
( )
dB
Gain in terms of decibels
Typical values of voltage gain, 10, 100, 1000 depending on size of input signal

Decibels often used when dealing with large ranges or multiple stages
Av in decibels (dB) = 20log|Av|
Ai in decibels (dB) = 20log|Ai|
Ap in decibels (dB) = 10log|Ap|
Amplifiers
Av = 10 000 20log|10 000| = 80dB
Av = 1000 20log|1000| = 60dB
Av = 100 20log|100| = 40dB
Av = 10 20log|10| = 20dB
Av = -10 20log|-10| = 20dB

Av = 0.1 20log|0.1| = -20dB

Av negative - indicates a phase change (no change in dB)
dB negative - indicates signal is attenuated
Amplifiers
Example 1.1
P
L
40.5 = mW
P
I
V
irms
I
irms
:= P
I
0.05 = mW
A
p
P
L
P
I
:= A
p
810 =
W
W
A
p
10 log 810 ( ) := A
p
29.085 = dB
P
dc
10 9.5 10 9.5 + := P
dc
190 = mW
P
dissipat ed
P
dc
P
I
+ P
L
:=
P
dissipat ed
149.55 = mW
q
P
L
P
dc
100 := q 21.316 = %
A
v
9
1
:= A
v
9 = I
i
0.0001 :=
A
v
20 log 9 ( ) := A
v
19.085 = dB
I
o
9
1000
:=
I
o
9 10
3
= A A
i
I
o
I
i
:= A
i
90 =
A
A
A
i
20 log A
i
( )
:= A
i
39.085 = dB V
orms
9
2
:= I
orms
9
2
:=
P
L
V
orms
I
orms
:= V
irms
1
2
:= I
irms
0.1
2
:=
An amplifier transfer characteristic that is linear except for output saturation.
Amplifiers

Saturation
An amplifier transfer
characteristic that is linear
except for output
saturation.
An amplifier transfer characteristic that shows considerable nonlinearity. (b) To obtain
linear operation the amplifier is biased as shown, and the signal amplitude is kept small.
Amplifiers

Non-Linear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing
Circuit model of a voltage amplifier
EPOLY is a dependent source is SPICE; a
voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)

EPOLY has a gain of Avo

The input to EPOLY is the voltage across
Ri
Vout = Avo Vin
Ri = input resistance
Ro = output resistance
+
Vout
-
+
Vin
-
I = 0
Amplifiers
Voltage amplifier with input source and load
What should we design Ro to be?

Av = Vout/Vin = Avo RL/(RL + Ro)

Let Ro < < RL to make Av maximum

Ideally Ro = 0
+
Vout
-
+
Vin
-
Avo - gain of VCVS only, o indicates
output is open

Av - gain of entire circuit

Av changes with circuit, Avo does not!
Amplifiers
Input resistance of amplifier circuit
+
Vout
-
+
Vin
-
What should we design Rin to be?

Vin = Vs Ri/(Ri + Rs)

Let Rin >> Rs to make Vin = Vs

Ideally Rin = infinity
If Rin = infinity, then all of Vs
makes it to the the amplifier;
otherwise part of the signal is lost
Amplifiers
Basic characteristics of ideal amplifier
For maximum voltage transfer

Rout = 0

Rin = infinity


Amplifiers
Amplifiers

Example 1.2
v
I
0.6 0.61 , 0.69 .. :=
v
o
v
I
( )
10 10
11
e
40 v
I

:=
0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7
0
5
10
v
o
v
I
( )
v
I
v
I
0.673 = v
I
Find v
I
( )
:=
v
o
10 10
11
e
40 v
I

given v
o
5 :=
v
I
0 :=
Lplus 10 = Lplus v
o
0 ( ) :=
v
o
v
I
( )
10 10
11
e
40 v
I

:=
v
I
0 :=
v
I
0.69 = v
I
Find v
I
( )
:=
v
o
10 10
11
e
40 v
I

given
inital value v
I
0 := v
o
0.3 :=
Lminus 0.3 :=
Amplifiers

Example 1.2
Amplifiers

Example 1.2
highlight equation use symbolics
then diff erentiate
10 10
11
e
40 v
I

1
2500000000
exp 40 v
I

( )

1
2500000000
exp 40 0.673 ( ) 196.457 =
Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Voltage Amplifiers

Common Models


Show example on board
Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Example 1.3

Class assignment

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Other Amplifiers

Current

Transconductance

Transresistance

Circuit Models For Amplifiers

Example 1.4

Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the active mode.
Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth



Single-Time Constant Networks

http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/plots/FOC.html

http://www.clarkson.edu/%7Esvoboda/eta/acWorkout/Switched_RCandRL.html




Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

RC Circuits Class Exercise

(a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the low-pass type.
Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

Frequency Response of Amplifiers



Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Bandwidth

(a) Magnitude and (b) phase response of STC networks of the high-pass type.
Frequency Response of Amplifiers



Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Example 1.5

Class assignment

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Classification of Amplifiers

Based on Frequency Response

Frequency Response of Amplifiers

Exercise 1.6

Class assignment

The Digital Logic Inverter

Function

Transfer Characteristics

Noise Margins

The Digital Logic Inverter

Function

Transfer Characteristics

Noise Margins

The Digital Logic Inverter

Inverter Implementation