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s
s tanu.
continued on next slide
Incline with friction at equilibrium (cont.)
mg
mg cosu
mg sinu
f
s
= mg sinu
N = mg cosu
Suppose we slowly crank up the
angle, gradually making the ramp
steeper and steeper, until the box is
just about to budge. At this angle,
f
s
= f
s,
max
=
s
N =
s
mg cos u.
So now we have
mg sinu =
s
mg cosu,
and
s
= tanu.
u
An adjustable ramp is a convenient
way to find the coefficient of static
friction between two materials.
(Neither of these quantities have units.)
Acceleration on a ramp with friction
mg
mg cosu
mg sinu
f
k
=
k
mg cosu
N = mg cosu
u
In order for the box to budge,
mg sinu must be greater than
f
s,
max
which means tanu must be
greater than
s
. If this is the
case, forget about
s
and use
k
.
f
k
=
k
N =
k
mg cosu.
F
net
= mg sinu - f
k
= ma.
So, mg sinu -
k
mg cosu = ma.
The ms cancel, which means a
is independent of the size of the
box. Solving for a we get:
a = g sinu -
k
g cosu. Once
again, the units work out right.
Parallel applied force on ramp
mg mg cosu
mg sinu
f
k
N
u
F
A
In this case F
A
and mg sinu are
working together against friction.
Assuming F
A
+ mg sinu > f
s,
max
the box budges and the 2
nd
Law tells
us F
A
+ mg sin u - f
k
= ma.
Mass does not cancel out this time.
If F
A
were directed up the ramp,
wed have acceleration up or
down the ramp depending on
the size of F
A
compared to mg
sinu. If F
A
were bigger, friction
acts down the ramp and a is up
the ramp.
Non-parallel applied force on ramp
mg
mg cosu
mg sinu
f
k
N
u
Suppose the applied force acts on
the box, at an angle o above the
horizontal, rather than parallel to
the ramp. We must resolve F
A
into parallel and perpendicular
components (orange and gray)
using the angle o + u.
F
A
serves to increase acceleration
directly and indirectly: directly by
orange pulling the box down the
ramp, and indirectly by gray
lightening the contact force with
the ramp (thereby reducing
friction).
F
A
o
F
A
cos(o + u )
F
A
sin(o + u )
u
continued on next slide
Non-parallel applied force on ramp (cont.)
mg
mg sinu
f
k
N
u
F
A
o
F
A
cos(o + u )
F
A
sin (o + u)
u
Because of the perp. comp. of
F
A
, N < mg cosu. Assuming
F
A
sin(o + u ) is not big enough
to lift the box off the ramp,
there is no acceleration in the
perpendicular direction. So,
F
A
sin(o + u ) + N = mg cosu.
Remember, N is what a scale
would read if placed under the
box, and a scale reads less if a
force lifts up on the box. So,
N = mg cosu - F
A
sin(o + u ),
which means f
k
=
k
N
=
k
[mg cosu - F
A
sin(o + u )].
continued on next slide
Non-parallel applied force on ramp (cont.)
mg
mg cosu
mg sinu
f
k
N
u
F
A
o
F
A
cos(o + u )
F
A
sin(o + u )
u
Assuming the combined force
of orange and blue is enough
to budge the box, we have
F
net
= orange + blue - brown = ma.
Substituting, we have
F
A
cos(o + u ) + mg sinu
-
k
[mg cosu - F
A
sin(o + u )] = ma.
Support Beam
mg
u
1
T
1
u
2
T
2
continued on next slide
Hanging Sign Problem
mg
u
1
T
1
u
2
T
2
Since the sign is not
accelerating in any
direction, its in
equilibrium. Since
its not moving
either, we call it
Static Equilibrium.
Thus, red + green + black = 0.
continued on next slide
Hanging sign f.b.d.
Free Body Diagram
mg
T
1
T
2
Vector Equation:
T
1
+ T
2
+ mg = 0
continued on next slide
As long as F
net
= 0, this is
true no matter many forces
are involved.
Hanging sign force triangle
F
net
= 0 means a closed vector polygon !
T
2
mg
T
1
u
1
u
2
T
1
cosu
1
T
2
cosu
2
T
1
sinu
1
T
2
sinu
2
T
1
cosu
1
= T
2
cosu
2
Horizontal:
Vertical:
T
1
sinu
1
+ T
2
sinu
2
= mg
We use Newtons 2
nd
Law twice, once in
each dimension:
Hanging sign equations
Components & Scalar Equations
Support Beam
35
T
1
62
T
2
75 kg
Answers:
Accurately draw all vectors and find T
1
& T
2.
T
1
= 347.65 N
T
2
= 606.60 N
Hanging sign sample
Vector Force Lab Simulation
Go to the link below. This is not exactly the same as the
hanging sign problem, but it is static equilibrium with three
forces. Equilibrium link
1. Change the strengths of the three forces (left, right, and
below) to any values you choose. (The program wont
allow a change that is physically impossible.)
2. Record the angles that are displayed below the forces.
They are measured from the vertical.
3. Using the angles given and the blue and red tensions, do
the math to prove that the computer program really is
displaying a system in equilibrium.
4. Now click on the Parallelogram of Forces box and write a
clear explanation of what is being displayed and why.
3 - Way Tug-o-War
Bugs Bunny, Yosemite Sam,
and the Tweety Bird are
fighting over a giant
450 g Acme super ball. If
their forces remain constant,
how far, and in what
direction, will the ball move
in 3 s, assuming the super
ball is initially at rest ?
Bugs:
95 N
Tweety:
64 N
Sam:
111 N
To answer this question, we must find
a, so we can do kinematics. But in
order to find a, we must first find F
net
.
38 43
continued on next slide
3 - Way Tug-o-War (continued)
Sam:
111 N
Bugs:
95 N
Tweety: 64 N
38 43
87.4692 N
68.3384 N
46.8066 N
43.6479 N
First, all vectors are split into horiz. & vert. comps. Sams are
purple, Tweetys orange. Bugs is already done since hes
purely vertical. The vector sum of all components is the same
as the sum of the original three vectors. Avoid much rounding
until the end. continued on next slide
95 N
87.4692 N
68.3384 N
46.8066 N
43.6479 N
continued on next slide
3 - Way Tug-o-War (continued)
16.9863 N
40.6626 N
Next we combine all parallel
vectors by adding or
subtracting:
68.3384 + 43.6479 - 95
= 16.9863, and
87.4692 - 46.8066 = 40.6626.
A new picture shows the net
vertical and horizontal forces on
the super ball. Interpretation:
Sam & Tweety together slightly
overpower Bugs vertically by
about 17 N. But Sam & Tweety
oppose each other horizontally,
where Sam overpowers Tweety
by about 41 N.
3 - Way Tug-o-War (continued)
16.9863 N
40.6626 N
F
net
= 44.0679 N
u
Find F
net
using the Pythagorean theorem. Find u
using trig: tanu = 16.9863 N / 40.6626 N. The
newtons cancel out, so u = tan
-1
(16.9863 / 40.6626)
= 22.6689. (tan
-1
is the same as arctan.)
Therefore, the superball experiences a net force of
about 44 N in the direction of about 23 north of west.
This is the combined effect of all three cartoon
characters.
continued on next slide
3 - Way Tug-o-War (final)
a = F
net
/ m = 44.0679 N / 0.45 kg = 97.9287 m/s
2
. Note the
conversion from grams to kilograms, which is necessary
since 1 m/s
2
= 1 N / kg. As always, a is in the same
direction as F
net.
. a is constant for the full 3 s, since the
forces are constant.
22.6689
97.9287 m/s
2
Now its kinematics time:
Using the fact
Ax = v
0
t + 0.5 a t
2
= 0 + 0.5 (97.9287)(3)
2
= 440.6792 m ~ 441 m,
rounding at the end.
So the super ball will move about 441 m at about 23 N of W.
To find out how far north or west, use trig and find the
components of the displacement vector.
3 - Way Tug-o-War Practice Problem
The 3 Stooges are fighting over a 10 000 g (10 thousand gram)
Snickers Bar. The fight lasts 9.6 s, and their forces are constant.
The floor on which theyre standing has a huge coordinate
system painted on it, and the candy bar is at the origin. What
are its final coordinates?
78
Curly:
1000 N
Moe:
500 N
93
Larry:
150 N
Hint: Find this
angle first.
Answer:
( -203.66 , 2246.22 )
in meters
How to budge a stubborn mule
Big Force
Little Force
It would be pretty tough to budge this mule by pulling directly
on his collar. But it would be relatively easy to budge him
using this set-up.
(explanation on next slide)
How to budge a stubborn mule (cont.)
overhead view
tree mule
little force
Just before the mule budges, we have static equilibrium. This
means the tension forces in the rope segments must cancel out
the little applied force. But because of the small angle, the
tension is huge, enough to budge the mule!
tree mule
little force
T
T
(more explanation on next slide)
How to budge a stubborn mule (final)
tree
mule
little force
T
T
Because u is so small, the tensions must be large to have
vertical components (orange) big enough to team up and
cancel the little force. Since the tension is the same
throughout the rope, the big tension forces shown acting at
the middle are the same as the forces acting on the tree
and mule. So the mule is pulled in the direction of the rope
with a force equal to the tension. This set-up magnifies
your force greatly.
u u
Relative Velocities in 1 D
Schmedrick and his dog, Rover, are goofing around on a train.
Schmed can throw a fast ball at 23 m/s. Rover can run at
9 m/s. The train goes 15 m/s.
continued on next slide
Question 1: If Rover is sitting beside the tracks with a radar
gun as the train goes by, and Schmedrick is on the train
throwing a fastball in the direction of the train, how fast does
Rover clock the ball?
v
BT
= velocity of the ball with respect to the train = 23 m/s
v
TG
= velocity of the train with respect to the ground = 15 m/s
v
BG
= velocity of the ball with respect to ground = 38 m/s
This is a simple example, but in general, to get the answer we
add vectors: v
BG
= v
BT
+ v
TG
(In this case we can simply
add magnitudes since the vectors are parallel.)
Relative Velocities in 1 D (cont.)
Velocities are not absolute; they depend on the motion of
the person who is doing the measuring.
Write a vector sum so that the inner subscripts match.
The outer subscripts give the subscripts for the resultant.
This trick works even when vectors dont line up.
Vector diagrams help (especially when we move to 2-D).
v
BG
= v
BT
+ v
TG
v
BT
= 23 m/s v
TG
= 15 m/s
v
BG
= 38 m/s
continued on next slide
Question 2: Lets choose the positive direction to be to the
right. If Schmedrick is standing still on the ground and Rover
is running to the right, then the velocity of Rover with respect
to Schmedrick = v
RS
= +9 m/s.
From Rovers perspective, though, he is the one who is still
and Schmedrick (and the rest of the landscape) is moving to
the left at 9 m/s. This means the velocity of Schmedrick with
respect to Rover = v
SR
= -9 m/s.
Therefore, v
RS
= - v
SR
The moral of the story is that you get the opposite of
a vector if you reverse the subscripts.
Relative Velocities in 1 D (cont.)
continued on next slide
v
SR
v
RS
Relative Velocities in 1 D (cont.)
Question 3: If Rover is chasing the train as Schmed goes by
throwing a fastball, at what speed does Rover clock the ball now?
v
BT
= 23 m/s v
TG
= 15 m/s
v
BG
= 29 m/s
Note, because Rover is chasing the train, he will measure a
slower speed. (In fact, if Rover could run at 38 m/s hed say the
fastball is at rest.) This time we need the velocity of the ball with
respect to Rover:
v
BR
= v
BT
+ v
TG
+ v
GR
= v
BT
+ v
TG
- v
RG
= 23 + 15 - 9
= 29 m/s.
Note how the inner subscripts match up again and the outer
most give the subscripts of the resultant. Also, we make use of
the fact that
v
GR
= - v
RG
.
v
RG
= 9 m/s
River Crossing
Current
0.3 m/s
campsite
boat
Youre directly across a 20 m wide river from your buddies
campsite. Your only means of crossing is your trusty rowboat,
which you can row at 0.5 m/s in still water. If you aim your
boat directly at the camp, youll end up to the right of it because
of the current. At what angle should you row in order to trying
to land right at the campsite, and how long will it take you to get
there?
river
continued on next slide
River Crossing (cont.)
Current
0.3 m/s
campsite
boat
river
0.3 m/s
0.5 m/s
Because of the current, your boat points in the direction of red
but moves in the direction of green. The Pythagorean theorem
tells us that greens magnitude is 0.4 m/s. This is the speed
youre moving with respect to the campsite. Thus,
t = d / v = (20 m) / (0.4 m/s) = 50 s. u = tan
-1
(0.3 / 0.4) ~ 36.9.
u 0.4 m/s
continued on next slide
River Crossing: Relative Velocities
Current
0.3 m/s
campsite
river
0.3 m/s
0.5 m/s
u 0.4 m/s
The red vector is the velocity of the boat with respect to the
water, v
BW
, which is what your speedometer would read.
Blue is the velocity of the water w/ resp. to the camp, v
WC
.
Green is the velocity of the boat with respect to the camp, v
BC
.
The only thing that could vary in our problem was u. It had to
be determined so that red + blue gave a vector pointing directly
across the river, which is the way you wanted to go.
continued on next slide
River Crossing: Relative Velocities (cont.)
v
WC
v
BW
u
v
BC
v
BW
=
vel. of boat w/ respect to water
v
WC
=
vel. of water w/ respect to camp
v
BC
=
vel. of boat w/ respect to camp
v
BW
+ v
WC
= v
BC
Look how they add up:
The inner subscripts match; the out ones give subscripts
of the resultant. This technique works in 1, 2, or 3
dimensions w/ any number or vectors.
Law of Sines
The river problem involved a right triangle. If it hadnt we
would have had to use either component techniques or the two
laws youll also do in trig class: Law of Sines & Law of
Cosines.
Law of Sines:
sin A sin B sin C
a b
c
= =
Side a is opposite angle A, b is opposite B, and c is opposite C.
A B
C
c
b
a
Law of Cosines
Law of Cosines:
a
2
= b
2
+ c
2
- 2 b c cosA
This side is always opposite this angle.
These two sides
are repeated.
It doesnt matter which side is called a, b, and c, so long as the
two rules above are followed. This law is like the Pythagorean
theorem with a built in correction term of -2 b c cos A. This term
allows us to work with non-right triangles. Note if A = 90, this
term drops out (cos 90 = 0), and we have the normal
Pythagorean theorem.
A B
C
c
b
a
v
WA
= vel. of Wonder Woman w/ resp. to the air
v
AG
= vel. of the air w/ resp. to the ground (and Aqua Man)
v
WG
= vel. of Wonder Woman w/ resp. to the ground (Aqua Man)
Wonder Woman Jet Problem
Suppose Wonder Woman is flying her invisible jet. Her
onboard controls display a velocity of 304 mph 10 E of N. A
wind blows at 195 mph in the direction of 32 N of E. What is
her velocity with respect to Aqua Man, who is resting poolside
down on the ground?
We know the first two vectors; we need
to find the third. First well find it using
the laws of sines & cosines, then well
check the result using components.
Either way, we need to make a vector
diagram. continued on next slide
The 80 angle at the lower right is the complement of the 10
angle. The two 80 angles are alternate interior. The 100
angle is the supplement of the 80 angle. Now we know the
angle between red and blue is 132.
Wonder Woman Jet Problem (cont.)
continued on next slide
10
32
v
WG
v
WA
+ v
AG
= v
WG
80
v
WG
80
32
100
Wonder Woman Jet Problem (cont.)
v
132
By the law of cosines v
2
= (304)
2
+ (195)
2
- 2 (304) (195) cos 132.
So, v = 458 mph. Note that the last term above appears negative,
but its actually positive, since cos 132 < 0. The law of sines says:
u
sin 132 sinu
v
195
=
So, sinu = 195 sin 132 / 458, and u ~ 18.45
80
This mean the angle between green and
the horizontal is 80 - 18.45 ~ 61.6
Therefore, from Aqua Mans perspective,
Wonder Woman is flying at 458 mph at 61.6
N of E.
Wonder Woman Problem: Component Method
32
10
This time well add vectors via components as weve done
before. Note that because of the angles given here, we use
cosine for the vertical comp. of red but sine for the vertical comp.
of blue. All units are mph.
103.3343
165.3694
52.789
299.3816
continued on next slide
Wonder Woman: Component Method (cont.)
1
0
3
.
3
3
4
3
165.3694
52.789
103.3343
52.789 165.3694
218.1584 mph
Combine vertical & horiz. comps. separately and use Pythag.
theorem. o = tan
-1
(218.1584 / 402.7159) = 28.4452. o is
measured from the vertical, which is why its 10 more than u.
o
Comparison of Methods
We ended up with same result for Wonder Woman
doing it in two different ways. Each way requires
some work. You will only want to use the laws of
sines & cosines if:
the vectors form a triangle.
youre dealing with exactly 3 vectors.
(If youre adding 3 vectors, the resultant makes
a total of 4, and this method would require using 2
separate triangles.)
Regardless of the method, draw a vector diagram! To
determine which two vectors add to the third, use the
subscript trick.
floor
Free body diagrams #1
m
F
1
F
2
Two applied forces; F
2
< mg;
coef. of kinetic friction =
k
For the next several slides, draw a free body diagram for each
mass in the set-up and find a (or write a system of 2
nd
Law
equations from which you could find a.)
v
F
1
F
2
f
k
mg
ma = F
1
- f
k
= F
1
-
k
N
= F
1
-
k
(mg - F
2
) (to the right). There is not enough
info to determine whether or not N is bigger than F
2
.
N
answer:
Free body diagrams #2
Bodies start at rest; m
3
> m
1
+ m
2
; frictionless
pulley with negligible mass. answer :
T
1
m
3
g
T
1
m
1
g T
2
T
2
m
2
g
Lets choose clockwise as the + direction.
m
1
: T
1
- m
1
g -T
2
= m
1
a
m
2
: T
2
- m
2
g = m
2
a
m
3
: m
3
g - T
1
= m
3
a
system: m
3
g - m
1
g - m
2
g = (m
1
+ m
2
+ m
3
)a
(Tensions are internal and cancel out.)
So, a = (m
3
- m
1
- m
2
) g / (m
1
+ m
2
+ m
3
)
If masses are given, find a first with last
equation and substitute to find the T s.
m
1
m
3
m
2
Free body diagrams #3
m
2
m
1
m
3
v
k
m
1
> m
3
m
1
g
T
1
m
3
g
T
2
Note: T
1
must be > T
2
otherwise m
2
couldnt accelerate.
T
2
- m
3
g = m
3
a T
1
- T
2
-
k
m
2
g = m
2
a m
1
g - T
1
= m
1
a
system: m
1
g -
k
m
2
g - m
3
g = (m
1
+ m
2
+ m
3
) a
T
1
T
2
f
k
m
2
g
N
answer:
Free body diagrams #4
m
v
answer:
Rock falling down in a pool of water
mg - D = ma. So, a = (mg - D) / m. Note: the longer the rock
falls, the faster it goes and the greater D becomes, which is
proportional to v. Eventually, D = mg and a becomes zero,
as our equation shows, and the rock reaches terminal
velocity.
D
mg
m
Free body diagrams #5
answer:
cotton
candy
Fe
A large crate of cotton candy
and a small iron block of the
same mass are falling in air at
the same speed, accelerating
down.
R
mg
R
mg
Since the masses are the
same, a = (mg - R) / m for
each one, but R is bigger for
the cotton candy since it has
more surface area and they
are moving at the same
speed (just for now). So the
iron has a greater accelera-
tion and will be moving faster
than the candy hereafter.
The cotton candy will reach
terminal vel. sooner and its
terminal vel. will be less than
the irons.
Free body diagrams #6 a
The boxes are
not sliding;
coefficients of
static friction are
given.
answer:
m
1
m
3
m
2
2
m
2
There is no friction acting on m
2
.
It would not be in equilibrium otherwise.
T = m
3
g = f
1
s
1
N
1
=
1
(m
1
+ m
2
) g
f
1
s reaction pair acting on table is not shown.
m
3
g
m
3
N
1
m
1
g
T
m
2
g
m
2
g
N
2
f
1
T
m
1
2
is extraneous
info in this
problem, but not
in the next slide.
Free body diagrams #6 b
Boxes accelerating
(clockwise); m
1
&
m
2
are sliding;
coefs of kinetic
friction given.
answer:
m
1
m
3
m
2
2
v
m
2
There is friction acting on m
2
now.
It would not be accelerating otherwise.
m
3
g - T = m
3
a; f
2
= m
2
a; T - f
1
- f
2
= m
1
a,
where f
1
=
1
N
1
=
1
(m
1
+ m
2
) g
and f
2
=
2
N
2
=
2
m
2
g.
m
3
g
N
1
m
1
g
T
m
2
g
m
2
g
N
2
f
1
T
m
1
f
2
f
2
Note: f
2
appears
twice; theyre
reaction pairs.
Free body diagrams #7
u
k
v
Boxes moving clockwise
at constant speed.
answer:
m
2
g
T
m
1
g
T
f
k
N
Since a = 0, m
2
g = T = m
1
g sinu + f
k
= m
1
g sinu +
k
m
1
g cosu
m
2
= m
1
(sinu +
k
cosu ). This is the relationship
between the masses that must exist for equilibrium.
Constant velocity is the same as
no velocity when it comes to the 2
nd
Law.
Note: sinu, cosu,
and
k
are all
dimensionless
quantities, so we
have kg as units
on both sides of
the last equation.
Free body diagrams #8
Mr. Stickman is out for a walk. Hes moseying along but picking up
speed with each step. The coef. of static friction between the grass
and his stick sneakers is
s
.
v
answer:
mg
N
f
s
Heres a case where friction is a good thing. Without it we
couldnt walk. (Its difficult to walk on ice since
s
is so small.)
We use f
s
here since we assume hes not slipping. Note:
friction is in the direction of motion in this case. His pushing
force does not appear in the free body diag. since it acts on
the ground, not him. The reaction to his push is friction.
F
net
= f
s
So, ma = f
s
s f
s, max
=
s
m g
Thus, a s
s
g.
Free body diagrams #9
ground
m
u
F
k
v
f
k
mg
F sinu
N
Note: u is measured with
respect to the vertical here.
Box does not get lifted up off
the ground as long as
F cosu s mg. If F cosu > mg,
then N = 0.
Box budges if F sinu > f
s, max
=
s
N =
s
(mg - F cosu ).
While sliding,
F sinu -
k
(mg - F cosu ) = ma.
answer:
Dot Products
First recall vector addition in component form:
( x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) ( x
2
, y
2
, z
2
)
+
=
( x
1
+ x
2
, y
1
+ y
2
, z
1
+ z
2
)
Its just component-wise addition.
Note that the sum of two vectors is a vector.
For a dot product we do component-wise multiplication and
add up the results:
( x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) ( x
2
, y
2
, z
2
)
-
=
x
1
x
2
+ y
1
y
2
+ z
1
z
2
Note that the dot product of two vectors is a scalar!
Ex: ( -2, 3, 10
) N ( 1, 6, -5
) m = -2 + 18 - 50 = -34 N m
-
Dot products are used to find the work done by a force
applied over a distance, as well see in the future.
Dot Product Properties
The dot product of two vectors is a scalar.
It can be proven that a - b = a b cosu, where u is the
angle between a and b.
The dot product of perpendicular vectors is zero.
The dot product of parallel vectors is simply the product of
their magnitudes.
A dot product is commutative:
A dot product can be performed on two vectors of the
same dimension, no matter how big the dimension.
a - b = b - a
Unit Vectors in 2-D
The vector v = ( -3, 4
) indicates 3 units left and 4 units up,
which is the sum of its components:
v = ( -3, 4 ) = ( -3, 0 ) + ( 0, 4 )
Any vector can be written as the sum of its components.
Lets factor out what we can from each vector in the sum:
v = ( -3, 4 ) = -3 ( 1, 0 ) + 4 ( 0, 1 )
The vectors on the right side are each of magnitude one. For
this reason they are called unit vectors.
A shorthand for the unit vector ( 1, 0 ) is i.
A shorthand for the unit vector ( 0, 1 ) is j.
Thus, v = ( -3, 4 ) = -3 i + 4 j
Unit Vectors in 3-D
v = ( 7, -5, 9 ) = ( 7, 0, 0 ) + ( 0, -5, 0 ) + ( 0, 0, 9 )
One way to interpret the vector v = ( 7, -5, 9 ) is that it
indicates 7 units east, 5 units south, and 9 units up. v can
be written as the sum components as follows:
= 7 ( 1, 0, 0 ) - 5 ( 0, 1, 0 ) + 9 ( 0, 0, 1 )
= 7 i - 5 j + 9 k
In 3-D we define these unit vectors:
i = ( 1, 0, 0 ), j = ( 0, 1, 0 ), and k = ( 0, 0, 1 )
(continued on next slide)
Unit Vectors in 3-D (cont.)
x
y
z
1
i
j
1
k
1
The x-, y-, and z-axes are
mutually perpendicular,
as are i, j, and k. The
yellow plane is the x-y
plane. i and j are in this
plane. Any point in space
can be reached from the origin using a linear combination
of these 3 unit vectors. Ex: P = (-1.8, -1.4, 1.2) so the vector
P
-1.8 i 1.4 j + 1.2 k will extend from the origin to P.
Determinants
To take a determinant of a 2 2 matrix,
multiply diagonals and subtract. The
determinant of A is written | A | and it
equals 3 (11) - 4 (-2) = 33 + 8 = 41.
|
|
.
|
\
|
11 4
2 3
A =
In order to do cross products we will need to find determinants
of 3 3 matrices. One way to do this is to expand about the 1
st
row using minors, which are smaller determinants within a
determinant. To find the minor of an element, cross out its row
and column and keep what remains.
i h g
f e d
c b a
Minor of a:
i h
f e
i g
f d
Minor of b:
h g
e d
Minor of c:
cont. on next slide
Determinants (cont.)
i h g
f e d
c b a
(Minor of a) - b
i h
f e
i g
f d
(Minor of b) + c
h g
e d
(Minor of c )
By definition,
= a
= a - b + c
= a (e i - h f ) - b (d i - g f ) + c (d h - g e)
Determinants can be expanded about any row or column.
Besides cross products, determinants have many other
purposes, such as solving systems of linear equations.
Cross Products
Let v
1
= ( x
1
, y
1
, z
1
)
and v
2
= ( x
2
, y
2
, z
2
).
By definition, the cross product of these vectors (pronounced
v
1
cross v
2
) is given by the following determinant.
v
1
v
2
= x
1
y
1
z
1
x
2
y
2
z
2
i j k
= (y
1
z
2
- y
2
z
1
) i - (x
1
z
2
- x
2
z
1
) j + (x
1
y
2
- x
2
y
1
) k
Note that the cross product of two vectors is another vector!
Cross products are used a lot in physics, e.g., torque is a
vector defined as the cross product of a displacement vector
and a force vector. Well learn about torque in another unit.
a b
a b.
Right hand rule
|
b
a
a b
A quick way to determine the direction of a cross product is
to use the right hand rule. To find a b, place the knife
edge of your right hand (pinky side) along a and curl your
hand toward b, making a fist. Your thumb then points in the
direction of
It can be proven that the magnitude of
is given by:
a b sin|
|a b | =
where | is the angle between
a and b.
Dot Product vs. Cross Product
1. The dot product of two vectors is a scalar; the cross product
is another vector (perpendicular to each of the original).
2. A dot product is commutative; a cross product is not. In fact,
a b =
- b a.
( x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) ( x
2
, y
2
, z
2
)
-
= x
1
x
2
+ y
1
y
2
+ z
1
z
2
3. Dot product
definition:
Cross product
definition:
v
1
v
2
= x
1
y
1
z
1
x
2
y
2
z
2
i j k
4. a - b = a b cosu, and a b sinu
|a b | =