Organizing Data and Information

Database Collection of data organized to meet users needs Database management system (DBMS) Software consisting of a group of programs that manipulate the database and provide an interface between the database and the application programs

The Hierarchy of Data

Data is generally organized in a hierarchy that begins with the smallest piece of data (a bit) and progresses through the hierarchy to a database.

The Hierarchy of Data Cont.

Character Basic building block of information, represented by a byte (0,1) Field A name, number, or combination of characters that describes an aspect of a business activity Record Collection of related fields File Collection of related records Database Collection of integrated and related files

Data Entities, Attributes, and Keys

Entity Generalized class of people, places, or things for which data is collected, stored, and maintained Attribute Characteristic of an entity Data item Specific value of an attribute Key A field or set of fields in a record that is used to identify the record Primary key A field or set of fields that uniquely identifies a record

Keys and Attributes

The Traditional Approach to Data Management Data management in which separate data files are created and stored for each application program

The Traditional Approach to Data Management

Flaws in the Traditional Approach

Data redundancy Duplication of data in separate files Data integrity The degree to which the data in any one file is accurate Program-data dependence Potential for incompatible programs and data between applications

The Database Approach to Data Management

Data management in which a pool of related data is

shared by multiple application programs Rather than having separate data files, each application uses a collection of data that are either joined or related in the database.

The Database Approach to Data Management

Advantages of the Database Approach

Improved strategic use of corporate data

Reduced data redundancy

Improved data integrity Easier modification and updating

Data and program independence

Better access to data and information Standardization of data access A framework for program development Better overall protection of the data Shared data and information resources

Disadvantages of the Database Approach

Relatively high cost of purchasing and operating a DBMS

in a mainframe operating environment Specialized staff. Increased vulnerability.

Database Considerations
Content What data is to be collected at what cost? Access What data is to be provided to which users when appropriate? Logical structure How is data going to be arranged so that it makes sense to a given user? Physical organization Where is the data going to be physically located?

Types of Database Design

An abstract model of how the database should be

structured and arranged to meet an organizations information needs Physical design A model of how the data will be organized and located within the database

Data Modeling and Entity-Relationship Diagrams

Data model A map or diagram of entities and their relationships Enterprise data modeling Data modeling done at the level of the entire organization. Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagrams Diagrams that use basic graphical diagrams to show the organization of and relationships between data. Relationships include: One-to-one (1:1), One-to-many (1:N), Many-to-many (N:M)

An Entity-Relationship Diagram

Database Models
Hierarchical (tree) models

Network models
Relational models

Hierarchical Database Model A model in which the data is organized in a topdown or inverted tree-like structure

Hierarchical Database Model

Network Models
An extension of the hierarchical model, in which a member may have many owners

Relational Models
Data organized in tabular format (rows and columns)
Relations: Two-dimensional tables into which data elements are placed

Tuple: Each row of a table

Attributes: Columns of the table

Domain: Values for attributes or columns

Comparison of Database Models

Relational Models

Data Manipulations
Selecting Eliminating rows according to certain criteria. Projecting Eliminating columns in a table. Joining Combining two or more tables. Linking Joining tables that share at least one common data element.

Creating and Modifying the Database

Data definition language (DDL) Collection of instructions and commands used to define and describe data and data relationships in a specific database Data dictionary A detailed description of all data used in the database

Data Dictionary
Provides a standard definition of terms and data elements
Assists programmers in designing and writing programs Simplifies database modifications Helps achieve advantages of the database approach

Reduced data redundancy

Increased data reliability Faster program development

Easier modification of data and information

Manipulating Data and Generating Reports

Structured Query Language (SQL) A standardized data manipulation language that has become an integral part of most relational database packages Data Manipulation Language (DML) Contains the commands used to manipulate the database Allows managers and other database users to access, modify, and make queries about data contained in the database to generate reports

Selecting a Database Management System

Begins by analyzing database needs and characteristics Performance Integration Features The vendor Cost

Emerging Database Trends

Distributed databases Actual data may be spread across several smaller databases connected via telecommunications devices Replicated database Holds a duplicate set of frequently used data

Data Warehouse
A relational database management system designed specifically to support management decision making

Data Warehouse

Data Warehouse
Data mart Subset of a data warehouse
Brings the data warehouse concept to small and medium-size businesses

On-line analytical processing (OLAP) Consists of programs used to store and deliver data warehouse information Data mining Automated discovery of patterns and relationships in a data warehouse

Aspects of Database Administration

Overall design and coordination of the database
Development and maintenance of schemas and sub

schemas Development and maintenance of the data dictionary Implementation of the DBMS System and user documentation User support and training Overall operation of the DBMS Testing and maintaining the DBMS Establishing emergency or failure-recovery procedures

Database Use, Policies, and Security

What data should users have direct access to?

Under what circumstances can data be transferred

from a PC or small computer system to the large mainframe system (uploading)? Under what circumstances can data be transferred from a mainframe system to PCs or small computer system (downloading)? What procedures are needed to guarantee proper database use?

Information Systems Principles

Without data and the ability to process it, an organization

would not be able to successfully complete most business activities. A database can help companies organize increased amounts of data to maximize this valuable resource. Often, distinct yet related databases must be linked to provide enterprise-wide databases to meet the needs of the modern organization. Determining what is to be collected in the database and who will have access to this data are important considerations in organizing data in a database.

Information Systems Principles Cont .

Distributed databases allow more users to gain direct access

to data stored at different user sites. Thus, controlling who accesses and changes data is sometimes difficult. Organizing data to support on-line transaction processing is significantly different than organizing it to support effective management decision making. As a result, special forms of databases and associated tools have been developed for each need. Having an effective database administrator is essential for an organization to receive the full benefits expected of a database while avoiding potential pitfalls.