Chapter 3 Resistance

ECET 1010 Fundamentals

3.1 Resistance

Opposing force due to collisions between electrons and between electrons and other atoms

Converts electrical energy into another form of energy such as heat

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Resistance

Determined by the following four factors

Material Length Cross-sectional area Temperature

R=l/A

3.2 Resistance: Circular Wires

The higher the resistivity, the more the resistance The longer the length of the conductor, the more the resistance The smaller the area of the conductor, the more the resistance The higher the temperature of the conductor, the more the resistance
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Area of Circular Wires

The area of the conductor is measured in circular mils (CM)

1 mil is one one-thousandth of an inch

A wire with a diameter of 1 mil has an area of 1 circular mil (CM)

Area of Circle = r2 = d2 / 4

Area of Circular Wires

Relationship between circular mils (CM) and square mils

1 CM = / 4 sq. mils

Relationship between area in circular mils (CM) and diameter in mils

ACM = (dmils)2

Example 3.1
What is the resistance of a 100-ft length of copper wire with a diameter of 0.020 in. at 20C?

l = 100 ft = 10.37 CM-/ft (Table 3.1) d = 0.020 in = 20 mils A = d2 CM = 400 CM R = 10.37 * 100 / 400 = 2.59
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Example 3.2
You have been given a carton of wire where an undetermined number of feet of the wire has been used. Find the length of the remaining copper wire if it has a diameter of 1/16 in. and a resistance of 0.5 .
= 10.37 CM-/ft d = 1/16 in = 62.5 mils A = (62.5)2 CM = 3906.25 CM R = 0.5 l = 3906.25 * 0.5 / 10.37 = 188.34 ft
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Example 3.3
What is the resistance of a copper bus-bar (as used in the power distribution panel of a high-rise office building) 3 ft long, 5 in. wide, and 0.5 in. thick?
l = 3 ft = 10.37 CM-/ft A = in * 5 in = 500 mil * 5,000 mil = 2.5 * 106 mil2 ACM = 2.5 * 106 * (4/ ) = 3.183 * 106 CM R = 10.37 * 3 / 3.183 * 106 = 9.773 * 10-6
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3.3 Wire Tables

Standardize the size of wire produced by manufacturers throughout the United States See Table 3.2 American Wire Gage (AWG) sizes

AWG number Area in circular mils Resistance in per 1,000 feet at 20C Maximum allowable current

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Example 3.4
Find the resistance of 650 ft of #8 copper wire (T = 20C). from Table 3.2 0.6282 / 1,000 ft R = 650 ft * (0.6282 / 1,000 ft) = 0.408
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Example 3.5
What is the diameter, in inches, of #12 copper wire?

from Table 3.2 ACM = 6529 CM = (dmils)2 d = 80.8 mil = 0.0808 in ~ 1/12 in

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Example 3.6
For the following system, the total resistance of each power line cannot be more than 0.025 , and the maximum current to be drawn by the load is 95 A. What gage wire should be used?

Need a picture of an input connected to a load by two 100 ft lengths of solid round copper.
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Example 3.6 (continued)

From Table 3.2 we choose #3 wire since its maximum allowable current is 100 A and this is greater than 95 A

We need to check and make sure 100 ft of #3 wire is NOT more than 0.025
R = 100 ft * (0.1970 / 1,000 ft) = 0.01970 0.025
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3.5 Temperature Effects

Temperature has a significant effect on the resistance of

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

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Conductors

For good conductors, an increase in temperature will result in an increase in the resistance level (due to an increase in the random motion of the particles in the material). Consequently, conductors have a positive temperature coefficient.

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Semiconductors

For semiconductor materials, an increase in temperature will result in a decrease in the resistance level (due to an increase in free carriers). Consequently, semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient.

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Insulators

As with semiconductors, an increase in temperature will result in a decrease in the resistance of an insulator. The result is a negative temperature coefficient.

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Inferred Absolute Temperature

Effect of temperature on the resistance of copper R1,t1 and R2,t2 -234.5 C Similar triangles yield

(234.5 + t1) / R1 = (234.5 + t2) / R2

Adapting to any material ( |T| + t1) / R1 = ( |T| + t2) / R2

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Inferred Absolute Temperatures

Material C 20

Silver
Copper Gold

-243 0.0038
-234.5 0.00393 -274 0.0034

Aluminum
Tungsten Nickel Iron Nichrome Constantan

-236 0.00391
-204 0.005 -147 0.006 -162 0.0055 -2,250 0.00044 -125,000 0.000008
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Example 3.9
If the resistance of copper wire is 50 at 20 C, what is its resistance at 100 C (boiling point of water)? (234.5 + 20) / 50 = (234.5 + 100) / R

R = 65.72
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Example 3.10
If the resistance of copper wire at freezing (0 C) is 30 , what is its resistance at -40 C? (234.5 + 0) / 30 = (234.5 - 40) / R

R = 24.88
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Example 3.11
If the resistance of an aluminum wire at room temperature (20 C) is 100 m (measured by a milliohmeter), at what temperature will its resistance increase to 120 m? (236 + 20) / 100 m = (236 + t) / 120 m

t = 71.2 C
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Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Definition of temperature coefficient of resistance at 20 C.

20 = 1 / (|T| + 20 C) For copper, 20 = 0.00393 / C/

The higher the temperature coefficient of resistance for a material, the more sensitive the resistance level to changes in temperature.

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Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Resistance R at a temperature t given by:

R = R20 [1 + 20(t - 20 C)]

Which can be written as:

R = (l/A) [1 + 20(T)]
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Example
If the nominal resistance of a copper wire is 5 , what will its resistance be at 30 C? R = 5 [1 + 0.00393(30 C - 20 C)]

R = 5 (1.0393) = 5.1965
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PPM/C

Parts per million per degree Celsius For resistors

5000-PPM is high 20-PPM is low 1000-PPM/C says a 1 C change in temperature gives a change in resistance equal to 1000 parts per million or 1,000/1,000,1000 or 1/1,000 of its value.

R = (Rnominal/106) (PPM) (T)

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Example 3.12
For a 1-k carbon composition resistor with a PPM of 2500, determine the resistance at 60C.
Rnominal = 1,000 PPM = 2,500 T = t 20 C = 60 C 20 C = 40 C R = (1,000/106) (2,500) (40) = 100
R = Rnominal + R = 1,100
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3.8 Color Coding and Standard Resistor Values

See Table 3.7 Way to identify

Resistance Tolerance Reliability

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Color Code Table

Color Silver Gold Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White None 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 20% 30 1% 2% 3% 4% 1% 0.1% 0.01% 0.001% Band 4 10% 5% Band 5

Bands

First and second band give first two digits Third band gives power-of-ten multiplier Fourth band gives tolerance, percent Fifth band gives reliability, failures per 1,000 hours use See Table 3.8 for standard resistor values
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Standard Resistor Values

Example 3.13a
Find the range in which a resistor having the following color bands must exist to satisfy the manufacturers tolerance: Gray, Red, Black, Gold, Brown 8 2 0 5% 1% 82 * 100 5% 77.9 86.1
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Example 3.13b
Find the range in which a resistor having the following color bands must exist to satisfy the manufacturers tolerance: Orange, White, Gold, Silver, No Color 3 9 -1 10% 39 * 10-1 10% 3.51 4.29
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Conductance

Reciprocal of resistance

G = 1 / R (Siemens, S)

As a function of area, length, and resistivity

G = A / (l)

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Example 3.14
What is the relative increase or decrease in conductivity of a conductor if the area is reduced by 30% and the length is increased by 40%? (The resistivity is fixed.) Gi = Ai / (ili) Gr = Ar / (rlr) = 0.7 Ai / (i (1.4) li) = (0.7/1.4) Ai / (ili) = 0.5 Gi
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Fixed Composition Resistors of Different Wattage Ratings

Measuring the Resistance of a Single Element