POWER SYSTEM -II

VI-SEMESTER

SYLLABUS
UNIT-1 DISTRIBUTION
Introduction Classification Types of construction Bus bar Substations AC distribution calculations AC distributed systems DC distributed systems

SYLLABUS
UNIT-II INDUSTRIAL DRIVES
Introduction Types of drives (or) motors Starting characteristics of various drives (or) motors Running characteristics of drives (or) motors Factors governing selection of drives (or) motors Selection of motors at different duty cycle Braking

SYLLABUS
UNIT-III ELECTRIC TRACTION
Introduction Classification of traction systems Track electrification AC to DC systems Traction mechanics Traction motors

SYLLABUS
UNIT-IV (A) TRACTION CONTROL
Necessity of control equipments Starting and speed control methods Braking

(B) ILLUMINATION
Introduction Laws of illumination Sources of light Types of lighting scheme

SYLLABUS
UNIT-V ELECTRIC HEATING AND WELDING
Introduction Advantages Heating methods Classification of electric heating Types of welding Electric welding equipments Method of welding current control

POWER SYSTEM
POWER SYSTEM PARTS 1. POWER SYSTEM-I 2. POWER SYSTEM-II
POWER SYSTEM MAJOR PARTS 1.GENERATION 2. TRANSMISSION 3. DISTRIBUTION

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

UNIT-I DISTRIBUTION
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION Part of power system distributes electric power from substation to consumers. MAJOR PARTS
1. Feeders 2. Distributors 3. Service mains

POWER SYSTEM

Single line diagram of low tension distribution system

CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 1.BASED ON TYPE OF SUPPLY 1.A.C. Distribution systems 2.D.C. Distribution systems 2.BASED ON SERVICE VOLTAGE 1. Low tension(LT)-400V 2. High tension (HT)-11KV 3. Extra high tension(EHT)-above 11Kv 3.BASED ON CONSTRUCTION 1. Over head distribution system 2. Under ground distribution system 4. BASED ON NUMBER OF WIRES 1. Two wire distribution 2. Three wire distribution 3. Four wire distribution

CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

5. BASEMED ON SCHME CONNECTION 1. Radial distribution system 2. Ring distribution system 3.Inter connected distribution system

TYPES
1. Primary distribution system 2. Secondary distribution system

 Some what higher than general utilization The voltage for primary distribution depends upon the amount of power conveyed and distance of sub station. Three phase three wire system may be used. Distributed 11KV supply to other substation or big consumers. This is called high voltage distribution or primary distribution.

11KV

6.6KV

3.3KV

The voltage range supplied the ultimate consumers usage. Supply voltage single phase 230V Three phase 400-440V The voltage between any two phase is 400V Any one phase and neutral is 230v

230V

400-440V

1. SINGLE PHASE AC SYSTEM

1.Single phase two wire system 2. Single phase two wire with mid point earthed 3. Single phase three wire
2. TWO PHASE AC SYSTEM

1. Two phase three wire 2. Two phase four wire

3. THREE PHASE AC SYSTEM

1. Three phase three wire 2. Three phase four wire.

DISTRIBUTOR

FEEDER LOAD

11kv/440v

SUB STATION

FEEDER

FEEDER

 Separate feeders radiated from a single sub station Feed the distributors at one end only Employed only low power generated low voltage Sub station located at the load center. ADVANTAGES Simple distribution circuit Lowest initial cost. DIS ADVANTAGES Load at nearest feeder heavily loaded Any fault on feeder supply cuts off to consumers Consumers at distance of distributor voltage fluctuations

Distributor

load

Transformer

Feeder Distributor Sub station Feeder load

Transformer Transformer

Distributor

load

 The primaries of distribution transformer forms a loop The loop circuit starts the substation and bus bar. ADVANTAGS Less voltage fluctuations System more reliable Continuity of supply

Distributor

load Sub station 2 Distributor

Sub station 1
Distributor

Transformer

load

Feeder load
Transformer

Distributor

load

 The feeder ring connected by two or more generating stations or sub stations is called interconnected systems. ADVANTAGES The service reliability is increased Any area fed peak load sharing another stations High efficiency.

 Balanced system neutral wire disconnected no change produced. Un balanced system neutral wire disconnected the loads are serial potential
R

100w
23oV N 23oV

150w
Y B

100w
N 400V

150w
Y

DC SYSTEM
DC two wire system DC two wire with mid point earthed DC three wire system SINGLE PHASE AC SYSTEM Single phase two wire system Single phase two wire with mid point earthed Single phase three wire system TWO PHASE AC SYSTEM Two phase four wire system. Two phase three wire system. THREE PHASE AC SYSTEM Three phase three wire Three phase four wire

COMPARISION OF COST OF CONDUCTORS

The power transmitted by each system is same The distance over The power transmitted by each system is same The line losses of the system is same. The voltage between any conductor and earth is same Three wire system the load should be balanced.

I1

Vm

I1

 The maximum voltage =Vm The power to be transmitted=P The resistance of each conductor=R1 R1=L/A A-Area of cross section in each conductor Line losses=2I12R1 Where I1= (P/ Vm) Line losses W=2 (P/ Vm) 2 R1 W=2 (P/ Vm) 2 L/A Area A=2P2L/W Vm2 Volume of copper V=2AL V =2(2P2L/W Vm2)*L V=4P2L2/W Vm2 V=4P2L2/W Vm2

 The maximum voltage =Vm RMS value = Vm/2 Load power factor=cos Load current=I2 Load power P= Vm/2 I2 cos I2= 2P/ Vmcos The resistance of each conductor=R2 R2=L/A A-Area of cross section in each conductor Line losses=2I22R2 Where I2= 2P/ Vmcos Line losses W=2 (2P/ Vmcos) 2 R2 W=4P2L/cos2Vm2A Area of section A=4P2L/Wcos2Vm2 Volume of copper V=2AL V =2(4P2L/Wcos2Vm2)*L V=8P2L2/Wcos2Vm2

Volume of copper used in AC single phase two wire system with one conductor earthed
Volume of copper used in DC Two wire system

8P2L2/Wcos2Vm2

=
4P2L2/W Vm2

=(8P2L2/Wcos2Vm2) * (W Vm2/ 4P2L2) =2/cos2 The cost copper required in this system is 2/cos2 times that of 2- wire DC
system with one end earthed

SUBSTATION

CLASSIFICATION OF SUB-STATION
Equip Substations Outdoor Substations Single line diagram of 11KV/400V distributing substations According to service requirement According to constructional features

Advantages of outdoor s/s

1. Simple construction and better ventilation. 2. The cost and time of errection is less. 3. The fire occurs at one point, it will not spread out to another section immediately due to spacing of the apparatus. 4. All the equipments of s/s are in open view

Disadvantages:
1. More area is required for the equipments 2. The equipment are subjected to collection of dust, dirt, etc., Weather proof and so costly.

Sub station equipments:

Transmission equipment Incoming lines Out going lines Insulators Conductors Power conversion equipments Circuit breakers Isolators Current and potential transformer Lightning arrestor Carrier current equipments

Bus-Bar Systems
An aluminum or copper conductor supported by insulators that interconnects the loads and the sources of electric power in an electric power system. single bus bar arrangements double bus bar arrangements ring bus bar systems

SINGLE BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS

A single set of bus bar is used for the completing generating station. all the transformer, generators and feeders were connected to this single bus bar. Advantages: It requires only one circuit breaker for each outgoing circuit. There fore it is a simple and economical. The bus bar potential can be used for the line relays. Future extension is possible. DIS ADVANTAGES: In case of a fault on the bus bar whole of the system is affected. It has least flexibility.

DOUBLE BUS BAR SYSTEMS:

This system consists of two bus bar, one main bus bar and another auxiliary bus bar. The incoming and out going lines are connected to the two bus bar. ADVANTAGES: maintenance work can be easily carried out. Dis advantages: Capital cost for the bus bar arrangement is more. Maintenance costs are high.

RING BUS BAR SYSTEM:

The ends of the bus bar are returned to form a ring. Each feeders is supplied from two paths. ADVANTAGES: the arrangement is quite economical. DISADVANTAGES: 1. it is difficult to add any new circuit to the ring.

UNIT - II
INDUSTRIAL DRIVES

Electric Drives
Electric drive is an industrial system which performs the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy or vice versa for running various processes

 * Production plants * Home appliances * Transportation of people or goods * Pumps * Air compressors * Music or image players * Computer disc drives * Robots etc

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC DRIVES

1. simple in construction less maintenance cost 2. speed control is easy and smooth. 3. its require less space 4. it can be installed at any desired convenient place. 5. it has comparatively longer life. 6. it can be remotely controlled.

Components of Electric Drives

The electrical components are made up of fewer mechanical wear parts, reducing the need to replace these parts, which result in lower operating costs for the electric drive system LOAD MOTORS CONTROL UNITS

Electric Break
electric breaking rheostat, dynamic, plugging and electric regenerative breaking.

Unit - III
ELECTRIC TRACTION

Electric Traction
Definition There is a wide variety of electric traction systems around the world, which have been built according to the type of railway, its location and the technology available at the time of the installation.

REQUIRMENT OF IDEAL TRACTION SYSTEM

1. The unit should develop high starting torque. 2. The system should withstand sudden temporary over load 3. Efficiency should be high 4. The wearing of the track should be minimum 5. The system should have easy speed control

TRACTION SYSTEMS
Steam engine drives 1. Internal combustion engine drive 2. Battery electric drives 3. Electric drives

STEAM ENGINE DRIVES

The reciprocating steam engine is used. The motive power is drive from the steam. This system is usually adopted in railway locomotive. ADVANTAGES: Its design is simple Low initial cost in comparison to electric traction system Speed control is very simple DISADVANTAGES: Maintenance cost is high limited over load capacity The capacity of the steam locomotive is limited. It is not clear drive because of coal, dust, ash etc. It cannot be started immediately.

INTERNAL COMBUTION ENGINE DRIVE

The motive power is derived from petrol or diesel. ADVANTAGES: Initial cost is low Speed control is simple Braking arrangements is simple No interface to the communication lines. DISADVANTAGES: 1. Over load capacity is limited. 2. Maintenance and running cost are high. Special cooling system is required. regenerative breaking cannot be used.

BATTERY ELECTRIC DRIVE

The capacity of the system is small. It is used for shunting in railway yards, for traction in mines, ports, for local delivery of goods in large towns and large industrial plants. advantages Low maintenance cost Absence of fumes. Disadvantages: Speed range is limited

Diesel Electric Traction

ADVANTAGES: Low capital cost Power loss in speed control is very low. The locomotive and train is a self contained unit. Time spent in maintenance is very low. DISADVANTAGES: Its over load capacity is limited Running and maintenance cost is high dead weight of the locomotive is more.

Bow Collector
Definition A bow collector is one of the three main devices used on tramcars to transfer electric current from the wires above to the tram below. While once very common in continental Europe, it has now been largely replaced by the pantograph.

Pantograph Collector
Definition A pantograph is a device that collects electric current from overhead lines for electric trains or trams.

Speed Time Curves

Definition
A curve or line that best fits the points on a graph on which speed is plotted on the y-axis and time on the x-axis. A speed-time curve may be used to identify different levels of acceleration for example, during different phases of a 100-m race.

Unit - IV
A. TRACTION CONTROL B. ILLUMINATION

Traction Control
Definition
A traction control system (TCS), also known as AntiSlip Regulation (ASR), is typically (but not necessarily) an electro-hydraulic system on production vehicles designed to prevent loss of traction of the driven road wheels, and therefore maintain the control of the vehicle when excessive throttle is applied by the driver and the condition of the road surface (due to varying factors) is unable to cope with the torque applied.

Rheostat Control
Definition A method of changing the connection of motors from series to parallel in which one motor, or group of motors, is first short-circuited, then disconnected, and finally connected in parallel with the other motor or motors. Also known as short-circuit transition

Shunt Transition
Definition A method of controlling the speed of electric motors that involves varying the resistance or reactance in the armature or field circuit; used in motors that drive elevators.

METADYNE CONTROL:
It is a machines which takes power at constant voltage and variable current at delivers at constant current and variable voltage. Since in this case current through out the starting period can be maintained constant.

MULTIPLE UNIT CONTROL:

The coaches where electric motor are installed are known as motor coaches multiple unit train are better suited for high speed running than locomotive hauled trains. Main advantages of using multiple train is the flexibility of operation. depending upon the traffic requirement, a suitable number of motor and trailer coaches are used. its verify according to their density. It is consists of traction motor, series parallel controller, reserver, accelerating relay, motor generator set, coupler, over current relay, cut out switches, fuses etc.

DRUM CONTROL
Its consists of rectangular, interconnected but insulated strip carried on the cylinder, when the drum is moved through certain angle these strip make contact with appropriate called figures. its shown by the vertical row of dots.. Vertical chain dotted lines shown the operating position is called notches.

Thyristor control
Definition

The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N and P-type material. They act as bistable switches, conducting when their gate receives a current pulse, and continue to conduct for as long as they are forward biased (that is, as long as the voltage across the device has not reversed).

ILLUMINATION
Illumination is a specialist manufacturer and distributer of decorative and commercial lighting offering a total lighting solution to pubs, hotels, restaurants and the leisure industry. We manufacture in a variety of metals and finishes producing a huge range of lighting fittings, both as standard production (from stock) and as bespoke productions to clients needs. We also stock and supply a wide and varied range of other lighting items.

Arc Lamp
"Arc lamp" or "arc light" is the general term for a class of lamps that produce light by an electric arc (also called a voltaic arc). The lamp consists of two electrodes, typically made of tungsten, which are separated by a gas. The type of lamp is often named by the gas contained in the bulb; including neon, argon, xenon, krypton, sodium, metal halide, and mercury. The common fluorescent lamp is actually a low-pressure mercury arc lamp.

Fluorescent Tube
A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury vapor. The excited mercury atoms produce short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into useful light more efficiently than an incandescent lamp. Lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost of the lamp.

Gas Discharge Lamp

Halogen Lamp

BASIC PRICIPLE OF LIGHT CONTROL

When light energy strikes a surface, depending upon the properties of the surface. Some portion of the energy is reflected and some portion ia absorbed.

TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEME: Direct lighting Indirect lighting Semi direct lighting Semi in direct lighting General lighting

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE DESINING LIGHTING SCHEME

Utilization factor Depreciation factor and maintenance factor Waste light factor Space-height ratio

UNIT - V
ELECTRIC HEATING AND WELDING

Electric Heating
Electric heating is any process in which electrical energy is converted to heat. Common applications include heating of buildings, cooking, and industrial processes .An electric heater is an electrical appliance that converts electrical energy into heat. The heating element inside every electric heater is simply an electrical resistor, and works on the principle of Joule heating: an electric current through a resistor converts electrical energy into heat energy. Alternatively, a heat pump uses an electric motor to drive a refrigeration cycle, drawing heat from a source such as the ground or outside air and directing it into the space to be warmed.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATING

Economical High efficiency Cleanliness Absence of unwanted gas Ease to control Automatic production localized application Uniform heating Low attention and maintenance cost Better working condition

HEATING METHOD BASED ON TEMPERATURE

Low temperature heating

Medium temperature heating

High temperature heating

Dielectric heating
Definition
Dielectric heating (also known as electronic heating, RF heating, highfrequency heating) is the process in which radio wave or microwave electromagnetic radiation heats a dielectric material. This heating is caused by dipole rotation.

Heat Transfer
Definition
Heat transfer is the transition of thermal energy from a hotter mass to a cooler mass. When an object is at a different temperature than its surroundings or another object, transfer of thermal energy, also known as heat transfer, or heat exchange, occurs in such a way that the body and the surroundings reach thermal equilibrium; this means that they are at the same temperature. Heat transfer always occurs from a higher-temperature object to a cooler-temperature one as described by the second law of thermodynamics or the Clausius statement.

Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction Conduction refers to the heat transfer that occurs across the medium. Medium can be solid or a fluid. Regions with greater molecular kinetic energy will pass their thermal energy to regions with less molecular energy through direct molecular collisions, a process known as conduction. In metals, a significant portion of the transported thermal energy is also carried by conduction-band electrons.

Convection

Radiation

INFRARED HEATING
This type is used for low and medium temperature. in this method special tungsten filament lamp is operated at the temperature of 2300c.this lamp at this temperature emits a large amount of infrared radiation. This method is used in during paints and foundry moulds and plastic heating at low temperatures.

ARC HEATING
When high voltage is applied across two electrodes, separate by an air gap, the air in between gets ionized due to electrostatic forces. The ionized air is a conducting material, the fore the current start flowing through the air gap in the form of continuous spark, arc with graphite or carbon electrodes the temperature obtained from the arc is between 3000c and3500c

INDUCTION HEATING
Induction heating is the process of heating an electrically conducting object (usually a metal) by electromagnetic induction, where eddy currents are generated within the metal and resistance leads to Joule heating of the metal. An induction heater (for any process) consists of an electromagnet, through which a high-frequency alternating current (AC) is passed. Heat may also be generated by magnetic hysteresis losses in materials that have significant relative permeability. The frequency of AC used depends on the object size, material type, coupling (between the work coil and the object to be heated) and the penetration depth.

Applications of Induction Heating

Induction furnace Induction welding Induction cooking Induction brazing Induction sealing Heating to fit Heat treatment

Advantages of Induction Heating

Optimized Consistency Maximized Productivity Improved Product Quality Extended Fixture Life Environmentally Sound Reduced Energy Consumption

Arc Heating
The heating of a material by the heat energy from an electric arc, which has a very high temperature and very high concentration of heat energy. Also known as electric-arc heating.

Coreless Induction Furnace Diagram

Atomic hydrogen arc welding

Atomic hydrogen welding is a thermo chemical welding process in which the work pieces are joined by the heat obtained on passing a stream of hydrogen through an electric arc struck between tow tungsten electrodes. The arc supplies the energy for a chemical reaction to take place, thereafter heat is obtained for welding. Filler rod may or may not be used during the process.

Atomic hydrogen arc welding

Carbon arc welding

Advantages of Carbon Arc Welding

Low cost of equipment and welding operation; High level of operator skill is not required; The process is easily automated; Low distortion of work piece. Disadvantages of Carbon Arc Welding Unstable quality of the weld (porosity); Carbon of electrode contaminates weld material

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic arc welding process in which a continuous and consumable wire electrode and a shielding source is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating current, can be used.

Electron beam Welding

Electron beam welding is a radiant energy welding process in which the work pieces are joined by the heat obtained from a concentrated beam composed primarily of high-velocity electrons impinging on the surface to be joined.

Laser Beam Welding

Ultrasonic Welding

Flash Welding

Seam Welding