Chapter 8 Settlement of shallow foundations

8.1 Modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio

8.2 Settlement based on theory of elasticity
8.3 Improved equation for elastic settlement
8.4 Calculation of elastic settlement in granular soil using simplified
strain influence factor
8.5 One-dimensional primary consolidation settlement calculation
8.6 SkemptonBjerrum modification for calculation of consolidation
settlement
8.7 Settlement of overconsolidated clays
8.8 Settlement calculation using stress path
8.9 Comparison of primary consolidation settlement calculation
procedures
8.10 Secondary consolidation settlement
8.11 Precompression for improving foundation soils
The increase of stress in soil layers due to the load imposed by
various structures at the foundation level will always be
accompanied by some strain, which will result in the settlement of
the structures.
In general, the total settlement S of a foundation can be given as
In granular soils elastic settlement is the predominant part of the
settlement, whereas in saturated inorganic silts and clays the
primary consolidation settlement probably predominates. The
secondary consolidation settlement forms the major part of the
total settlement in highly organic soils and peats.
Definition of soil modulus from triaxial test results
1. Initial tangent modulus E
i
2. Tangent modulus at a given stress level E
t
3. Secant modulus at a given stress level E
s
4. shear modulus G
8.1 Modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio
E
s
E
t
E
i
Based on experimental values, it appears that
The undrained secant modulus of clay soils can generally be
expressed as
Su: undrained shear strength
Relation between E/S
u
and overconsolidation ratio from consolidated
undrained tests on three clays determined from CK
o
U type direct shear
tests (after DAppolonia et al., 1971).
The modulus of elasticity can also be calculated from shear modulus G.
For undrained loading condition, v= 0.5; hence E 3G. For
shear strain levels of less than 10
5
(Hardin and Drnevich, 1972),
For normally and lightly overconsolidated clays of high to medium
plasticity,
For static loading conditions,
Geregen and Pramborg (1990) also obtained the following
correlation for very stiff dry-crust clay
Modulus of elasticitygranular soil
The modulus of elasticity has been correlated to the field standard
penetration number N and also the cone penetration resistance q
c
by
various investigators.
8.2 Settlement based on theory of elasticity
Consider a foundation located at a depth below the ground surface. A
rigid layer is located at a depth below the bottom of the foundation.
Theoretically, if the foundation is perfectly flexible, the settlement may
be expressed as
Elastic settlement
Elastic settlement of flexible and rigid foundations.
To calculate settlement at the center of the foundation, we use
To calculate settlement at a corner of the foundation, use
The variations of F
1
and F
2
with m and n are given in Tables 8.6
through 8.9, respectively. The variation of I
f
with D
f
/B and v (=0; 0.4; 0.5)
is shown in Figure 8.4 (for L/B = 1, 2, and 5), which is based on Fox
(1948).
Due to the nonhomogeneous nature of soil deposits, the
magnitude of E may vary with depth. a weighted average of E is
recommended
For a rigid foundation
Example
A rigid shallow foundation 12m is shown in below figure. Calculate
the elastic settlement at the center of the foundation.
Elastic settlement for a rigid shallow foundation
solution
Given B = 1m and L = 2m.
From Tables 8.6 8.8, F
1
= 0.641 and F
2
= 0.031.
For the center of the foundation
Again, D
f
/B = 1/1 = 1, L/B = 2, and v = 0.3. From Figure 8.4b,
Depth factor: I
f
= 0.709. Hence
according to equation (8.23),
8.3 Improved equation for elastic settlement
The formula takes into account the rigidity of the foundation, the
depth of embedment of the foundation, the increase in the
modulus of elasticity of the soil with depth, and the location of rigid
layers at a limited depth.
to determine the equivalent diameter B
e
of a rectangular foundation
Improved equation for calculating elastic settlementgeneral parameters
a foundation with an equivalent diameter B
e
located at a depth D
f
below
the ground surface. Let the thickness of the foundation be t and the
modulus of elasticity of the foundation material be E
f
. A rigid layer is
located at a depth H below the bottom of the foundation. The modulus of
elasticity of the compressible soil layer can be given as E = E
o
+kz
Variation of I
G
with |'
Similarly, the embedment correction factor is
The foundation rigidity correction factor can be expressed as
Flexibility
factor: Kf
Variation of rigidity correction factor I
F
with flexibility factor K
F

Example
For a shallow foundation supported by a silty clay as shown in the Figure
Length = L = 15m, Width = B = 1m, Depth of foundation = D
f
= 1m,
Thickness of foundation = t = 0.23m, Load per unit area = q = 190kN/m
2
.
Variation of embedment correction factor I
E
with D
f
/B
e

Estimate the elastic settlement of the foundation.
Solution
the equivalent diameter is
The silty clay soil has the following properties:
So, with q = 190kN/m
2
, it follows that
8.4 Calculation of elastic settlement in granular soil using
simplified strain influence factor
The equation for vertical strain
z
under the center of a flexible circular
load was given in the Eq.3.82 as
where I
z
is the strain influence factor.
empirical strain influence factors for square L/B = 1 and strip foundations
L/B 10 as shown in Figure 8.11.
Interpolations can be made for L/B values between 1 and 10.
A' and B' are nondimensional and are functions of z/b and s/b; their values are
given in Tables 3.13 and 3.14.
Strain influence factor
empirical strain influence factors
for square L/B = 1 and strip
foundations L/B 10 as shown in
the Figure.
Interpolations can be made for L/B
values between 1 and 10.
where t is time, in years.
Fig.8.12 Calculation of S
e
from strain influence factor
1. On the basis of the actual variation of q
c
, assume a number of
layers having a constant value of q
c
. This is shown by the
dashed lines in Figure 8.12b.
2. Divide the soil located between z = 0 and z = z' into several
layers, depending on the discontinuities in the strain influence
factor diagram (Figure 8.12a) and the idealized variation of q
c

(i.e., dashed lines in Figure 8.12b). The layer thicknesses are
Az
1
, Az
2
& Az
n
.
3. Prepare a table (e.g., Table 8.10) and calculate E(I
z
/E)Az.
4. Calculate C
1
and C
2
from Eqs. (8.33) and (8.34). In Eq. (8.34),
assume t to be 510 years.
5. Calculate S
e
from Eq. (8.32).
the following steps can be taken to calculate Se.
Example
The idealized variation of the cone penetration resistance below a
bridge pier foundation is shown in a figure. The foundation plan is
202m. Given D
f
= 2m, unit weight of soil = 16kN/m
3
, and .q =
150kN/m
2
, calculate the elastic settlement using the strain
influence factor method.
solution Refer to Figure 8.13, which is a strip foundation, since
L/B =20/2 = 10. The soil between the strain influence factor zone
has been divided into five layers. The following table can now be
prepared.
Settlement calculation under a pier foundation
Calculate
Use t = 10 years. So,
8.5 One-dimensional primary consolidation settlement
calculation
where o'
c
is the preconsolidation pressure.
(consolidation settlement)
the settlement for one-dimensional consolidation can be given by,
overconsolidation pressure
Method A
1. Calculate the average effective pressure o'
0
on the clay layer
before the application of the load under consideration.
2. Calculate the increase of stress due to the applied load at the
top, middle, and bottom of the clay layer. This can be done by
using theories developed in Chap. 3. The average increase of
stress in the clay layer can be estimated by Simpsons rule,
3. Using the o'
0
and Ao
av
calculated above, obtain Ae from Eqs.
6.77 6.78, or 6.79, whichever is applicable.
4. Calculate the settlement by using Eq. 6.76.
Calculation of consolidation settlementmethod A
Method B
1. Better results in settlement calculation may be obtained by
dividing a given clay layer into n layers as shown in Figure 8.15.
2. Calculate the effective stress o'
0(i)
at the middle of each layer.
3. Calculate the increase of stress at the middle of each layer Ao
i

due to the applied load.
4. Calculate Ae
i
for each layer from Eqs. 6.77, .678, or 6.79,
whichever is applicable.
5. Total settlement for the entire clay layer can be given by
Calculation of consolidation settlementmethod B
Example
A circular foundation 2m in diameter is shown in Figure a. A
normally consolidated clay layer 5m thick is located below the
foundation. Determine the consolidation settlement of the clay.
Use method B.
solution divide the clay layer into five layers, each 1m thick.
Calculation of o'
0(i):
The effective stress at the middle of layer 1 is
The effective stress at the middle of the second layer is
Similarly,

Consolidation settlement calculation from layers of finite thickness
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 4
Layer 5
96.97
6.04
30.10
73.54
Calculation of Ao
i
: For a circular loaded foundation, the increase
of stress below the center is given by Eq. (3.74), and so,
where b is the radius of the circular foundation, 1m. Hence
Calculation of consolidation settlement S
c
: The steps in the
calculation are given in the following table (see also Figures 8.16b
and c);
So, Sc= 0.0793m = 79.3mm.
) ( 28 . 28
6
04 . 6 66 . 16 4 97 . 96
) 4 (
6
1
a
b m t av
kP =
+ +
=
A + A + A = A o o o o
) ( 82 . 51
6
54 . 73 82 . 51 4 10 . 30
) 4 (
6
1
a
b m t
kP =
+ +
=
'
+
'
+
'
=
'
o o o o
03 . 0
82 . 51
28 . 28 82 . 51
log 16 . 0 log =
+
=
'
A +
'
= A
o
o o
av
c
C e
) ( 081 . 0 5
85 . 0 1
03 . 0
1
0
m H
e
e
s
t c
=
+
=
+
A
=
According to Method A:
8.6 SkemptonBjerrum modification for calculation of
consolidation settlement
Skempton and Bjerrum (1957) proposed that the vertical
compression of a soil element of thickness dz due to an increase of
pore water pressure Au may be given by
where m
v
is coefficient of volume compressibility, or
The increase of pore water pressure at a point due to a given load
is
Development of excess pore water pressure
below the centerline of a circular loaded foundation
For conventional one-dimensional consolidation (K
o
condition),
Settlement ratio,
Total consolidation settlement:
We can also develop an expression similar to above Eq. for
consolidation under the center of a strip load (Scott, 1963) of
width B.
only be used for settlement calculation along the axes of
symmetry. Away from the axes of symmetry, the principal stresses
are no longer in vertical and horizontal directions.
Settlement ratio for strip and circular loading
Example
The average representative value of the pore water pressure
parameter A (as determined from triaxial tests on undisturbed
samples) for the clay layer shown in Figure 8.19 is about 0.6.
Estimate the consolidation settlement of the circular tank.
Consolidation settlement
under a circular tank
Solution The average effective overburden pressure for the 6-
m-thick clay layer is o'
0
= (6/2)(19.249.81)=28.29kN/m
2
. We will
use Eq. (8.35) to obtain the average pressure increase:
From Figure 8.18 the settlement ratio
circular
is approximately 0.73
(note that H
t
/B = 2), so
Settlement ratio for strip and circular loading
8.7 Settlement of overconsolidated clays
Settlement ratio in overconsolidated clay
(after Leonards, 1976)
Is a correction factor.
if B > 4H
t
,=1 may be used.
if the depth to the top of the
clay stratum exceeds twice
the width of the loaded area,
=1 should be used.
Settlement of structures founded on overconsolidated clay can be
calculated by dividing the clay layer into a finite number of layers
of smaller thicknesses as outlined in method B. Thus
8.8 Settlement calculation using stress path
Lambes (1964) stress path was explained in Sec. 7.15. Based
on Figure 7.42, it was also concluded that
1. the stress paths for a given normally consolidated clay are
geometrically similar, and
2. when the points representing equal axial strain (1) are
joined, they will be approximate straight lines passing
through the origin.

Let us consider a case where a soil specimen is subjected to an
oedometer (one-dimensional consolidation) type of loading
(Figure 8.21). For this case, we can write
Determination of the slope of K
o
line
where K
o
is the at-rest earth pressure
coefficient
the coordinates of point E can be
given by
Plot of p' versus q' with Ko and Kf lines.
where | is the angle that the line OE (K
o
line) makes with the
normal stress axis.
If o'
1
=o'
3
(i.e., hydrostatic compression) and the specimen is subjected to a hydrostatic
stress increase of Ao under drained conditions, then the drained stress path would be
EF, as shown in the figure . There would be uniform strain in all directions. If o'
3
= K
o
o'
1

(at-rest pressure) and the specimen is subjected to an axial stress increase of Ao under
drained conditions , the specimen deformation would depend on the stress path
it follows. For stress path AC, which is along the Ko line, there will be axial deformation
only and no lateral deformation. For stress path AB there will be lateral expansion, and
so the axial strain at B will be greater than that at C. For stress path AD there will be
some lateral compression, and the axial strain at D will be more than at F but less than
that at C. Note that the axial strain is gradually increasing as we go from F to B.
Stress path and specimen distortion
Volume change between two points of a p' versus q' plot.
Note: K
o
line also corresponds to a certain value of 1.
In the calculation of settlement from stress paths, it is assumed
that, for normally consolidated clays, the volume change between
any two points on a p' versus q' plot is independent of the path
followed. For a soil specimen, the volume changes between
stress paths AB, GH, CD, and CI, for example, are all the same.
However, the axial strains will be different. With this basic
assumption, we can now proceed to determine the settlement.
For ease in understanding, the procedure for settlement calculation will
be explained with the aid of an example. For settlement calculation in a
normally consolidated clay, undisturbed specimens from representative
depths are obtained. Consolidated undrained triaxial tests on these
specimens at several confining pressures are conducted, along with a
standard one dimensional consolidated test. The stressstrain contours
are plotted on the basis of the consolidated undrained triaxial test results.
The standard one dimensional consolidation test results will give us the
values of compression index Cc. For example, let Figure 8.25 represent
the stressstrain contours for a given normally consolidated clay
specimen obtained from an average depth of a clay layer. Also let Cc
= 0.25 and e
0
= 0.9. The drained friction angle (determined from
consolidated undrained tests) | is 30. From Eq. (8.50),
Owing to the construction of a structure, the increase of the total
major and minor principal stresses at an average depth are
So, before loading, stress condition represented by Point A
Immediately after loading,
Point E
ADE is the effective stress path that a soil element, at average depth of
the clay layer, will follow.
Use of stress path to calculate settlement
AD represents the elastic settlement, and DE represents the
consolidation settlement.
For elastic settlement (stress path A to D),
the volumetric strain between D and E is the same as the volumetric
strain between A and H. Note that H is on the Ko line. For point A o'
1
= 75kN/m
2
, and for point H o'
1
= 118kN/m
2
.
The axial strain 1 along a horizontal stress path is about one-third the
volumetric strain along the K
o
line, or
So, the consolidation settlement is
and hence the total settlement is
8.9 Comparison of primary consolidation settlement calculation
procedures
Comparison of
consolidation settlement
calculation procedures
essentially we calculate the
settlement along the stress path AE,
along the K
o
line. A is the initial at-
rest condition of the soil, and E is
the final stress condition (at rest) of
soil at the end of consolidation.
According to the Skempton
Bjerrum modification, the
consolidation settlement
is calculated for stress path DE. AB
is the elastic settlement. However,
Lambes stress path method gives
the consolidation settlement for
stress path BC.
8.10 Secondary consolidation settlement
The coefficient of secondary consolidation C
o
was defined as
Thus secondary consolidation settlement can be given by
Secondary consolidation
where t is time and H
t
the thickness of the clay layer.
8.11 Precompression for improving foundation soils
Concept of precompression technique
to apply some surcharge
loading before foundation
construction in order to
eliminate or reduce the
postconstruction
settlement.
This technique has been
used with success in
many large construction
projects.
a given construction will require a permanent uniform
loading of intensity o
f
. The total primary consolidation
settlement due to loading is estimated to be equal to S
cf
.
If we want to eliminate the expected settlement due to
primary consolidation, we will have to apply a total
uniform load of intensity o = o
f
+ o
s
.
This load will cause a faster rate of settlement of the
underlying compressible layer; when a total settlement
of S
cf
has been reached, the surcharge can be removed
for actual construction.
Choice of degree of consolidation for calculation of precompression
The degree of
consolidation Uz will vary
with depth and will be
minimum at midplane, i.e.,
at z = H.
the average degree
of consolidation Uav
use the midplane degree
of consolidation U
z=H
as
the criterion for our
calculation.
For convenience, a plot of U
(f+s)
versus T
v
is
given in Figure 8.30. So the time for surcharge load removal, t, is
Example
The soil profile shown in following figure is in an area where an
airfield is to be constructed. The entire area has to support a
permanent surcharge of 58kN/m
2
due to the fills that will be
placed. It is desired to eliminate all the primary consolidation in 6
months by precompression before the start of construction.
Estimate the total surcharge (q = q
s
+q
f
) that will be required
for achieving the desired goal.
Solution
Soil profile for precompression
For two-way drainage,
Plot of U
(f+s)
versus T
v
Variation of U
(f+s)
with os/of and o
f
/o'
0

Assignment
The p' versus q' diagram for a normally consolidated clay is shown
in the figure. The specimen was obtained from an average depth
of a clay layer of total thickness of 5m. C
c
= 0.3 and e
0
= 0.8.
(a) Calculate the total settlement (elastic and consolidation) for a
loading following stress path ABC.
(b) Calculate the total settlement for a loading following stress
path ABD.
(c) What would be the
consolidation settlement
according to
the SkemptonBjerrum
method for
the stress path ABC?
Assignment
A permanent surcharge of 100kN/m
2
is to be applied on the
ground surface of the soil profile shown in the figure. It is required
to eliminate all of the primary consolidation in 3 months. Estimate
the total surcharge=
s
+
f
needed to achieve the goal.