Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The physical environment includes light and heat or solar radiation, moisture, wind, oxygen, carbondioxide, nutrients in soil, water, and atmosphere.
The biological environment includes organisms of the same kind as well as other plants and animals. The term 'ecosystem' was coined by A.G. Tansley
Odum (1971) defined Ecosystem as a unit that includes all of the organisms in a given area interacting with the physical environment, so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure (Trophe = nourishment) .
Structure of Ecosystem: Each ecosystem has two main components: 1. Abiotic components : The nonliving factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the abiotic components. They are mainly of two types:
(a) Climatic factors: Rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity.etc (b) Edaphic Topography. factors: Soil, pH, Minerals,
2. Biotic components: The living organisms including plants, animals, and micro-organisms (Bacteria and fungi) that are present in an ecosystem.
On the basis of their role in ecosystem they
1) Producers
2) consumers 3 ) Decomposers.
Definitions Habitat - The physical and biological surroundings needed for survival, which include food, shelter, water, and space
Producer
Any
organism
that
can
photosynthesize.
Consumer - An organism that cannot make its own energy but must acquire it by eating green plants or other consumers. Decomposer - An organism that helps to breakdown and decay dead organisms and animal waste products, thereby returning nutrients into the soil.
The producers are plants and some bacteria capable of producing their own food photosynthetically or by chemical synthesis. Autotrophs nourishing) : (autotrophic = self-
Green plants fix radiant energy in the presence of the green pigment, chlorophyll, and with the help of minerals (C, H, O, N, P, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe etc.) taken from their soil and aerial environment ,they build up complex organic matter (carbohydrates, fats, amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids etc). So green plants are also called as converters (or) transducers Therefore, producers. autotrophs are called
The consumers are animals that obtain their energy and protein directly by grazing , feeding on other animals, or both.
Macroconsumers: eg: They are of three types : viz., primary consumers eg: herbivores, secondary consumers eg: carnivores tertiary consumers eg: Carnivores and Omnivores (Phagotrophs).
Microconsumers It includes parasites, decomposers.
detritivores
and
Detritivores are scavengers which feed on dead plants and animals or their waste. They are essential for recycling of nutrients: without them dead plant material would not be returned to the soil for new growth.
Herbivore
Carnivore
omnivore
1. Parasites: They obtain food directly from other organism of all trophic levels. Parasites cause disease and depend on the host for food.
2. Detrivores and Scavengers: Detrivores (e.g., termites, earth worms, wood lice, millipede etc) feed on organic fragments whereas, scavengers (e.g., vulture, carrion beetle) feed on dead bodies.
Scavengers and detrivores seem to be essential for quick breakdown of dead bodies of organisms. 3. Decomposers: They are mostly parasitic and saprophytic bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi.
animal material is then broken down by decomposers (bacteria and fungi) into simple inorganic substances. They are cycled back to the soil and the atmosphere and are available to primary producers.
consumer decomposer cycle indefinitely with the sun as the energy source. its trophic level.
Thus,
(I) The composition of biological community including species (plants, animals and microbes), biomass, life cycles and distribution in space, trophic standpoint. (ii) The quantity, distribution and cycling of the non-living materials such as major and micronutrients, trace elements and water
(iii) The range (or) gradient of conditions
Scavenger -Vulture
Detrivore- Termite
Bacteria
Fungi
Parasites
Herbivores
Some animals do not eat other animals. They survive on plants and are known as herbivores.
Carnivores
Some animals, like the kingfisher, eat only other animals. These animals are called carnivores.
Omnivores
Some animals, like us, eat both plants
Consumers
Consume means eat.
Animals are consumers because they
Predator
A predator eats other animals.
So do bears!
Predator
The cat is a predator, because it eats
other animals. The bear is a predator, because it eats other animals. People are predators too!
Prey
Any animal which is hunted and killed by another animal for food is prey.
Predator
Prey
Some animals are predators, some are prey - some are both.
The predator eats the prey, and the prey gets eaten by the predator.
Function of Ecosystem:
i) Flow of Energy: The rate of biological community varies. energy flow
(ii) Nutrient Cycling: Rate of materials (or) nutrient cycles (iii) Biological (or) Ecological regulation which includes regulation of organisms by environment (eg: Photoperiodism) and regulation of environment by organisms (nitrogen fixation by organisms).
ecosystem from the external environment through a series of organism and back to the external environment.
Ecosystem is maintained by the flow of energy. With the exception of chemosynthetic bacteria all other
autotrophs obtain energy from the sun. They trap the light energy and convert it into chemical energy of organic compounds during the process of photosynthesis. ecosystem.
Energy flow
heat
Primary productivity
Primary productivity is the rate of
energy capture by producers. = the amount of new biomass of producers, per unit time and space
Flow of Energy
Aquatic ecosystem = 0. 2% Terrestrial ecosystem, = 1. 0% Grassland = 1. 15% Mixed forest = 0. 8% Crops = 5. 0% C4 plants (sugarcane ) = 10 - 12% The autotrophs consume a part of the trapped energy, during their growth and metabolism. The remaining is used in their body building. The heterotrophs depend upon the autotrophs for obtaining organic compounds and energy contained in them.
There is always loss of energy at each step of its transfer. energy is dissipated(wasted) unidirectional. degraded into heat and
Some
follows
the
two
laws
of
neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to another. .
Approximately 10% of the energy at each trophic level is transferred to the next trophic level; 90% loss due to... energy used by the organisms at lower level; lost as heat some biomass at lower levels not consumed -> decomposers undigested material -> decomposers
Nutrient Cycling
(2) Nutrient Cycling: Rate of materials (or) nutrient cycles
Bio-Geo-Chemical Cycles: There are about 40 chemical elements considered to be
Sedimentary cycles : In sedimentary cycles the main reservoir is the soil; The sedimentary and other types of rocks of earth's crust.
(ii) Gaseous cycles: They have their main reservoir of
nutrients in the atmosphere and oceans. Examples are the oxygen cycle, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle etc. Both cycles involve the biotic and abiotic systems
Nutrient cycle
of elements (e.g., carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen or mineral elements) through the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. a storehouse for the element.
exchange pool is the portion of the environment from which producers take chemicals, such as the atmosphere or soil. chains) through which chemicals move.
The biotic community is the pathway (i.e., food Some cycles are primarily gaseous cycles (carbon
In
an Ecosystem biological cycling of materials is maintained by three groups viz. Producers, consumers, and decomposers/recyclers. and mineral cycling involving interaction between the physico -chemical environment and the biotic communities is considered as the 'heart' of ecosystem. (unidirectional) from sun to the decomposers via producers and macro consumers. manner
OXYGEN CYCLE
The water cycle The water cycle involves the movement of water from the sea, through the atmosphere, over and through the land, and back to the sea. On the way water passes through industry, houses, animals and people. Humans and animals are made of 70% water.
The carbon cycle The carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon from the air, into plants, animals, people, the earth, and back into the air. It also includes the mining and release of carbon that was trapped in the bodies of ancient plants and animals.
WATER CYCLE
CARBON CYCLE
NITROGEN CYCLE
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Ecosystem Regulation
All
ecosystems regulate and maintain themselves under a set of environmental conditions. stress tries to disturb the normal ecosystem functions , the ecosystem, by itself, tries to resist the change and maintain itself in equilibrium with the environment due to a property known as homeostasis. maintains a functional balance between various components. This phenomenon is called homoeostasis.
Any
Ecosystem
It
increases its number beyond the limit thus it controls own growth in response to scarcity of resources and overcrowding.
Food chains
The transfer of food energy from the source in
plants (producers) through a series of organism (herbivores) to carnivores to decomposers) with repeated stages of eating and being eaten is known as food chain.
food for some other organism and thus, there is essentially no waste in the functioning of a natural ecosystem. are:
Phytoplanktons
> water fleas > small fish > Tuna (Pond ecosystem) organism in the ecosystem is assigned a feeding level or trophic level depending on its nutritional status.
Each
matter which the detritivores and decomposers consume. Partially decomposed dead organic matter and even the decomposers are consumed by detrivores and their predators.
Example - Mangrove and estuarine areas. Dead organic matter > Detrivores >predators. Fallen leaves and dead plants >soil mites > Insects
> Fish.
where different types of organisms are connected at different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic level. on a single species, but most consumers have multiple food sources. interconnect to form a food web.
FOOD WEB
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Graphic representation of trophic
structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is knows as an ecological pyramid.
three types:
Pyramid of Energy:
Pyramid of Numbers
It represents the number of individual
organisms at each trophic level. It may be upright or inverted pyramid of numbers, depending upon the type of ecosystem and food chain A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers
Pyramid of Numbers a)
Pyramid of biomass
It is based upon the total biomass (dry
matter) at each trophic level in a food chain. The pyramid of biomass can also be upright or inverted. The pyramid of biomass in a forest is upright. The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass. a) Grassland ecosystem b) pond ecosystem
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Energy
The amount of energy present at each trophic
level is considered for this type of pyramid. Pyramid of energy is always upright.
huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat, respiration etc.
the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decline in energy level of each successive trophic level as we move from Producers to top carnivores
Types of Ecosystem:
The world's major different habitat types. 1. Terrestrial ecosystems: Include Arctic
and alpine ecosystems, dominated by cold areas and lacking trees; forest ecosystems, which can be subdivided into a whole range of types including tropical rainforests, Mediterranean evergreen forests, temperate and boreal forests, and temperate deciduous forests; grasslands and savannahs; and deserts and semi-arid ecosystems.
2.
Freshwater ecosystems: Include lakes, rivers, and marshland. "Hybrid" terrestrial and freshwater systems include swamp forests and seasonal floodplains.
reefs, mangroves, sea-grass beds, and other coastal and shallow water ecosystems to open-water ecosystems and the mysterious, little-known systems of the abyssal plains and trenches of the world's oceans.
Arctic ecosystem
Coral reefs
Seagrass beds
Seagrass beds
30 N
Equator
30 S
Temperate deciduous forest Coniferous forest Figure 34.9 Tundra (arctic and alpine)
TYPES OF FOREST
There are three major types of
have other groups of forests that are named because of the weather and seasons they have.
TEMPERATE FOREST
ARCTIC FOREST
Tropical forests Have the greatest diversity of species (lots of birds, small mammals, and insects) Located near the equator (an imaginary line around the Earth forming the great circle that is equidistant from the north and south poles) There is no winter and these forests only have 2 seasons: rainy and dry 12 hours of daylight Temperature is about the same all year around (68F to 77F) Average rainfall is more than 78 inches per year 1 square kilometer may contain more than 100 species of trees Soil is not nutrient rich
length of the dry season increases further as rainfall decreases (all trees are deciduous). lose their leaves or needles, i.e. pine tree. Deciduous trees drop their leaves, i.e. maple trees.)
Temperate forests
Located in eastern North America, northeastern Asia, and
Temperature varies from -22F to 86F Rainfall occurs throughout the year, averages 30 to 60
Soil is nutrient rich 3-4 tree species per square kilometer (include such species
maple,
basswood,
rabbits, skunks, birds, deer, mountain lion, bobcat, timber wolf, fox, and black bear
Conifer: (trees that produce evergreen forests: wet winters and dry summers high
cones)
and
elevations
Temperate coniferous: mild winters, more than 78 Temperate broad-leaved rainforests: mild, frost-free
winters, and more than 60 inches of rain that occurs throughout the year.
forests are in Siberia with the remaining located in Alaska, Scandinavia and Canada)
Have short, moist summers and long, cold dry winters Most of the precipitation is snow (15 to 40 inches per
year)
bear, weasel, lynx, fox, wolf, deer, hares, chipmunks, shrews, and bats)
2.4 million square miles that extends from central Alaska in the west to central Labrador in the east.
3.4 million square miles stretching from western Scandinavia across Northern Europe and Asia to the Pacific Ocean.
Eurasian :
The different components of a forest ecosystem Abiotic component : These are the inorganic as well as organic
substances present in the soil and atmosphere. occur in the following order.
Biotic component : The living organisms present in the food chain Producers : The trees are of different kinds depending upon the kind
of the forest formation developing in that climate. Besides trees, there are also present several climbers, epiphytes, shrubs and a ground vegetation. grandis, Butea frondosa, Shorea rubusta and Anogeissus latifolia, Adina cordifolia and so on.
Quercus, Acer, Betula ,and conifers such as Abies, Pinus Thuja, Picea etc., whereas in a temperate coniferous forests, the dominant producer trees are gymnosperrns genera : Abies, Picea, Pinus, Cedrus, Juniperus and wide range of flowering plants.
Consumers
(a) Primary consumers. These are the herbivores
that include the animals feeding on tree leaves as ants, flies, beetles, leafhoppers, bugs and spiders etc., and larger animals grazing in shoots and/or fruits of the producers, the elephants, nilgai, deer, moles, squirrels, shrews, flying foxes, fruit bats, mongooses etc., carnivores like snakes, birds, lizards, fox etc. feeding on the herbivores. Tertiary consumers. These are the top carnivores like lion, tiger, etc., that eat carnivores of secondary consumers level.
(c)
including fungi (species of Aspergillus, Coprinus, Polyporus, Ganoderma, Fusarium, Alternariq, Trichoderma etc.), bacteria (species of Bacillus, Clostridhim, Pseudomonas, Angiococcus etc.,) and actinomycetes, like species of Streptomyces etc. of decomposition in tropical and subtropical forests is more rapid than that in the temperature ones. They actively participate in biogeochemical nutrient recycling.
Rate
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEMS
Grasslands
are dominated by grass species but sometimes also allow the growth of a few trees and shrubs.
cycles of temperature and precipitation contribute to abundant vegetative growth that both protects and enriches the soils of these prairies and plains, making them among the richest farmlands in the world
annual precipitation) (b) Temperate grasslands (150 cm of annual precipitaiton) (c)Polar grasslands (Arctic Tundra)
tropical rain forests in regions of high average temperature and low to moderate rainfall. In Africa, these are typically known as Savannas, which have tall grasses with scattered shrubs and stunted trees. zebras, giraffes, gazelle, antelopes etc. During dry season, fires are quite common.
the detritus (dead organic matter) containing a lot of cellulose and build up a mound. On the top of the mound fungi are found to grow which feed upon this dead matter including cellulose and in turn release methane, a greenhouse gas.
Tropical
savannas have a highly efficient system of photosynthesis. Most of the carbon assimilated by them in the form of carbohydrates is in the perennating bulbs, rhizomes, runners etc. which are present underground. Deliberate burning of these grasslands can release huge quantities of carbon dioxide, another green house gas, responsible for global warming.
Rhizome
Termite mound
found on flat, gentle sloped hills, winters are very cold but summers are hot and dry. Intense grazing and summer fires do not allow shrubs or trees to grow. In United States and Canada these grasslands are known as prairies, in South America as Pampas, in Africa as Velds and in central Europe and Asia they are known as Steppes.
Winds keep blowing and evaporation rate is
very high. It also favours rapid fires in summer. The soils are quite fertile and therefore, very often these grasslands are cleared for agriculture.
veld
veld
Steppes - bustard
found in arctic polar region where severe cold and strong, frigid winds along with ice and snow create too harsh a climate for trees to grow. and hence several small annual plants grow in the summer.
reindeer etc.
surface throughout the year and is known as permafrost. In summer, the tundra shows the appearance of shallow lakes, bogs etc. where mosquitoes, different type of insects and migratory birds appear
Reindeer
Grass
weasel
DESERT ECOSYSTEMS
These
ecosystems occur in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation (rainfall, snow etc.) About l/3rd of our world's land area is covered by deserts. drought resistant or drought avoiding plants.
Deserts have little species diversity and consist of The atmosphere is very dry and hence it is a poor
insulator. That is why in deserts the soil gets cooled up quickly, making the nights cool. Deserts are of three major types, based on climatic conditions:
in Africa and Thar desert, Rajasthan, India are the driest of all with only a few species. Wind blown sand are very common. Temperate deserts like Mojave in Southern California where day time temperatures are very hot in summer but cool in winters.
(b)
Temperate Deserts
Cold Desert
Tropical Desert
Thar desert
Sahara desert
the regions with an annual rainfall of less than 25 centimeters. The various biotic components are :
few succulents like cacti are present. Some lower plants like lichens and xerophytes mosses may be present. insects, able to live under xeric conditions. In additions to them, there are also found some nocturnal rodents and birds. The 'ship of desert', camels feed on tender shoots of the plants.
vegetation the amount of dead organic matter is correspondingly less. They are some fungi and bacteria, most of which are thermophilic.
a plant that has fleshy and turgid water-storing tissues such as stems, leaves or roots, capable of retaining large amounts of moisture
Producers
Consumers
consumers
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Aquatic ecosystems dealing with water bodies
and the biotic communities present in them are either freshwater or marine.
another
they are influenced not only by local climate, soil, but also by the surrounding ecosystems.
terrestrial
Pond ecosystem
It
receiving enough water during rainy season. Ponds are usually shallow water bodies
Pond ecosystem
Structure and Function: A pond is a good example of a small
self-sufficient and self-regulating ecosystem. Location, size ,depth and substratum of a pond influence pond ecosystem.
: They are mainly large rooted plants which include partly or completely submerged, floating Sagittaria, Nymphara, Potamogeton, Chara, Hydrilla, Vallisheria, Utricularia, Marselia,
Lemna
etc
also
Macrophytes
Macrophytes
(b) Phytoplankton
These
or
Phytoplanktons
2.Consumers : Most of the consumers are herbivores while a few insects and some large fish are carnivores.
The
feeding directly on living plants (producers) or plant remains. They may be large as well as minute in size. populations include fish, insect larvae, beetles, mites, molluscs, crustaceans etc.
Benthic
etc., visit the pond casually and feed on marginal rooted macrophytes. Some birds also regularly visit the pond feeding on some hydrophytes.
some
Zooplanktons
(b) Secondary consumers (Carnivores) : They are the carnivores, which feed on the
primary consumers herbivores. These are chiefly insects and fish, which feed on zooplankton.
(c) Tertiary consumers (carnivores) : Some
large fish feed on the smaller fish and thus become the tertiary (top) consumers.
In a pond, fish may occupy more than one trophic levels. The small fish (herbivores) feed
3.MicroConsumers or Decomposers :
They are also known as micro consumers, since they absorb only a fraction of the decomposed organic matter.
They bring about the decomposition of complex dead organic matter of both plants and animals to simple forms.
Lake ecosystems
Lakes are usually big freshwater bodies
Littoral zone, an open-water zone where effective penetration of solar light takes place, called Limnetic zone and a deep bottom area where light penetration is negligible, known as profundal zone
Stratification of lakes
The lakes show stratification or zonation based on
temperature differences.
than the bottom waters. Therefore, only the warm top layer circulates without mixing with the colder layer, thus forming a distinct zonation: : Warm, lighter, circulating surface
Epilimnion
layer Hypolimnion : Cold, viscous, non-circulating bottom layer. region of sharp drop in temperature.
Stratification of lakes
compared with lentic freshwaters (ponds, lakes etc), lotic waters such as streams and rivers have been less studied.
that remain permanently attached to a firm substrate are green algae such as Cladophora, encrusting diatoms and aquatic mosses.
Green algae
Consumers
:The consumers show certain such features as permanent attachment to firm substrate, presence of hooks and suckers, sticky undersurfaces. freshwater sponges and caddisfly larvae, larvae of Stimulium , snails and flatworms, fish and stonefly like actinomycetes are present which acts as decomposers.
Consumers
snails
sponges
mayfly
flatworms
Estuaries
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area
at the mouth of a river where fresh water and salty seawater meet.
location
Such
organisms are known as eurythermal and euryhaline. Coastal bays, and tidal marshes are examples of estuaries.
of
the
species
are
of fishes like eels and salmons in which half of the life is spent in fresh water and half in salty water.
Salmons
for resting during migration, where they also get abundant food. are ecosystems. highly productive
Estuaries
Producers
Microscopic algae comprising phytoplankton suspended
in the water column and benthic diatoms on the sediment estuaries near the mouth of permanently open
Seaweeds
Beds
of submerged aquatic plants like eelgrass, generally only exposed at the lowest spring tides, in the middle reaches and tropical areas of the east coast, in the intertidal zone of the middle and upper reaches
Producers
Redknobbed coot
seahorse
Herons