Fuses & Circuit Breakers

Chapter -1

Need for Circuit Protection

Excessive current is referred to as overcurrent

What is a Fuse
Low resistance resistor that acts as a sacrificial device to provide overcurrent protection, of either the load or source circuit. Essential component is a metal wire or strip

Made of materials having low melting point, high conductivity,

least oxidation like silver copper etc. Inserted in series with circuit Under normal condition fuse element is at temperature below melting point. In case of short circuit or overload condition fuse melts and blows away, thereby disconnecting circuit protected by it.

Fuses are used in low voltage and medium voltage circuits.

Fuse

An electrical fault (1)

An electrical fault (2)

Definitions of important terms related to Fuse

1. Fuse element or Fuse wire It is the part of the fuse which carries the normal current without excessive heating. But when more than normal current pass

through fuse wire, it rapidly heats up and melts.

Definitions of important terms related to Fuse

1. a. Materials used for fuse wires The materials used for fuse wires are mainly tin, lead, zinc, silver, copper, aluminium etc.

Desirable characteristics of fuse element

Low melting point e.g., tin, lead. High conductivity e.g., silver, copper. Free from deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver. Low cost e.g., lead, tin, copper.

For small currents upto 10 A, tin or an alloy of lead and tin (lead 37%, tin 63%) is used for making the fuse element.

For larger currents, copper or silver is employed. It is a usual practice to tin the copper to protect it from oxidation.

Zinc (in strip form only) is good if a fuse with considerable time-lag is required i.e., one which does not melt very quickly with a small overload.

Definitions of important terms related to Fuse

2. Rated current
It is maximum value of current due to which fuse does not get melt.

3. Minimum fusing current or Current carrying capacity of a fuse wire It is minimum value of current due to which fuse melts. Current carrying capacity of a fuse wire depends upon various factors like, material used for it, dimension of it, i.e. diameter and length, size and shape of terminals used to connect it, and the surrounding.

Definitions of important terms related to Fuse

4. Fusing Factor
It is defined as the ratio of minimum fusing current and current rating of fuse.

Fusing factor =

Minimum fusing current current rating of fuse.

This factor is always more than 1.

Cut-off Characteristics

Cut-off Characteristics
5. Prospective Current in fuse: The prospective current is defined as the value of current which would flow through the fuse immediately after a short circuit occurs in the network. (i.e without fuse). Ip is the peak value of prospective current. 6. Cut-off current : It is the current at which the fuse element melts.

Cut-off Characteristics
7. Melting time or pre arcing time of fuse : It is the time taken by a fuse wire to be broken by melting. It is counted from the instant, the over current starts to flow through fuse, to the instant when fuse wire is just broken by melting.

8. Arcing time of fuse: After breaking of fuse wire there will be an arcing between both melted tips of the wire which will be extinguished at the current zero. The time accounted from the instant of arc initiated to the instant of arc being extinguished is known as arcing time of fuse.

Cut-off Characteristics
9. Total Operating time of fuse: When ever over rated current starts to flow through a fuse wire, it takes a time to be melted and disconnected, and just after that the arcing stars between the melted tips of the fuse wire, which is finally extinguished. The operating time of fuse is the time gap between the instant when the over rated current just starts to flow through the fuse and the instant when the arc in fuse finally extinguished. i.e operating time of fuse = pre-arcing time(melting time) + arcing time of fuse.

Cut-off Characteristics
10. Rupturing capacity or Breaking Capacity : It is the MVA rating of the fuse corresponding to the largest prospective current which the fuse is capable of breaking(rupturing) at the system voltage.

Fuse Characteristics

A Fuse being a thermal device, has inverse time current characteristic. i.e. the operating time decreases as the fault current increases.

Fuse Characteristics
As the prospective current increases, the pre arcing time decreases. The characteristic is asymptotic and there is a minimum current below which the fuse does not operate ( minimum fusing current ).

Advantages :
It is the cheapest form of protection available.
It requires no maintenance. Its operation is inherently completely automatic unlike a circuit breaker which requires elaborate equipment for automatic action. It can break heavy short-circuit currents without noise or smoke. The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under short-circuit conditions.

The inverse time-current characteristic of a fuse makes it suitable for

overcurrent protection. The minimum time of operation can be made much shorter than with the circuit breakers.

Disadvantages :
Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation.

On heavy short-circuits, *discrimination between fuses in series

cannot be obtained unless there is sufficient difference in the sizes of the fuses concerned. The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be co-related with that of the protected apparatus.

Types of Fuses

Types of Fuses
There are two main types of fuses (i) Rewirable Fuse The blown-out fuse element can be replaced by new one. (a) open type. (b) Semi-enclosed type.

(ii) Totally enclosed or Cartridge Fuse

The fuse element is enclosed in a totally enclosed container and is provided with metal contacts on both sides.

D-type Cartridge Fuse High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse

Types of Fuses
Non time-Delay Fuse Fuses without time delay provide excellent short circuit protection. When an overcurrent situation occurs, heat builds up rapidly in the fuse. Fuses without time delay usually hold 500% of their rating for approximately one-fourth second, after which the current carrying element melts. This means that these fuses cannot be used in motor circuits which often have inrush currents of greater than 500%.

Time-Delay Fuses

provide overload and short circuit protection. Time-delay fuses usually allow five times the rated current for up to ten seconds to allow motors to start

Rewirable - Open Type Fuse

An open fuse element is a thin piece of wire of tin, lead or copper inserted directly in a circuit.
It is simplest & cheapest form of protection.

Disadvantage: Due to fire hazard and unreliable operation caused by oxidation, it is used no longer.

Rewirable - Semi-enclosed Type Fuse

Rewirable - Semi-enclosed Type Fuse

Totally enclosed - D-type Cartridge Fuse

Totally enclosed - D-type Cartridge Fuse

Totally enclosed - D-type Cartridge Fuse

It is a non interchangeable fuse comprising s fuse base, adapter ring, cartridge and a fuse cap. The cartridge is pushed in the fuse cap and the cap is screwed on the fuse base. On complete screwing the cartridge tip touches the conductor and circuit between the two terminals is completed through the fuse link. The standard ratings are 6, 16, 32, and 63 amperes. The breaking or rupturing capacity is of the order of 4k A for 2 and 4 ampere fuses the 16k A for 63 A fuses. D-type cartridge fuse have none of the drawbacks of the rewireable fuses. Their operation is reliable. Coordination and discrimination to a reasonable extent and achieved with them.

Totally enclosed High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse

Totally enclosed High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse

Totally enclosed High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse

Totally enclosed High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse

In this type of fuse, the fuse wire or element can carry short circuit heavy current for a known time period. During this time if the fault is removed, then it does not blow off otherwise it blows off or melts. The enclosure of HRC fuse is either of glass or some other chemical compound. This enclosure is fully air tight to avoid the effect of atmosphere on the fuse materials. The ceramic enclosure having metal end cap at both heads, to which fusible silver wire is welded. The space within the enclosure, surrounding the fuse wire or fuse element is completely packed with a filling powder. This type of fuse is reliable and has inverse time characteristic, that means if the fault current is high then rupture time is less and if fault current is not so high then rupture time is long.

Totally enclosed High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Cartridge Fuse

When the over rated current flows through the fuse element of High Rupturing Capacity Fuse the element is melted and vaporized. The filling powder is of such a quantity that the chemical reaction between the silver vapour and the filling powder forms a high resistance substance which very much help in quenching the arc.

Advantages & Disadvantages of HRC Fuse

Capability of clearing high values of fault currents
Fast operation Non- deterioration for long periods. No maintenance required. Reliable discrimination. Consistent in performance. Current limiting by cut off action.

Inverse time characteristic.

It requires replacement after each operation. It produces over heating of adjacent contacts.

Applications of HRC Fuse

1. Protection of low voltage distribution systems against over loads. 2. Protection of cables. 3. Protection of Bus bars. 4. Protection of motors. 5. Protection of semiconductor devices.

6. Backup protection to circuit breakers.

Discrimination
Correct operation of the correct protective device is known as Discrimination of protective devices. For proper discrimination, there should be coordination

between the protective devices. When two adjacent fuses carrying the same current, the pre arcing time of the major fuse (near the source)must exceed the total operating time of the minor fuse(far from the source)

Types of Discrimination
Discrimination between two fuses.

Discrimination between fuses and over current protective devices.

Discrimination between two fuses.

Discrimination between fuses and over current protective devices

Discrimination between fuses and over current protective devices

In motor circuits, fuses provide short circuit protection and the over current relay provides over current protection. Over current relay operates for the currents within the breaking capacity of the circuit breaker and fuse operates for faults of larger current. For this purpose characteristics of relay should be below that

of fuse.
The fuse is so selected that the intersection of the characteristics of these two protective devices must take place at a point corresponding to six times the full load current, keeping in view that the protective devices do not operate unduly during starting. In this case fuse provides back-up protection to the motor and is connected on the supply side.

Selection of Fuses
Fuse selection process

Fuses can prevent accidents including the electronic circuit emitting smoke and/or catching fire by opening the circuit if any abnormal current

passes through it. However, selection of a fuse inappropriate to the

intended protection purpose may lead to nuisance operations and the inability to open the circuit in the case of abnormal currents, which may result in accidents

Safety precautions when selecting fuses

Will the fuse be inserted in an AC circuit or a DC circuit?

Only select fuses with DC rated voltage for DC circuits, and those with AC rated voltage for AC circuits.

Safety precautions when selecting fuses

What is the power factor/time constant of the circuit in which the fuse is to be inserted?
The size of the inductance of the circuit relates to the magnitude of the power factor or the time constant. When the fuse interrupts an abnormal current in a circuit with a large inductance, a large recovery voltage is generated and this can prevent the fuse from breaking the current.

How many amperes will flow through the circuit the fuse is to be used in?

A rated current is defined for each fuse, and this value is marked on it. When selecting fuses by rated current, it is important to fully examine the following current conditions (including current waveform) of the circuit in which the fuse is to be inserted, in order to prevent nuisance operation of the fuse and ensure that all necessary protection goals are met. Steady-state current Inrush current Abnormal current

Circuit breakers

What is a Circuit Breaker ?

What is a Circuit Breaker ?

Circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device capable of making the circuit under normal conditions and breaking the circuit under abnormal conditions and also provide automatic reclosing. The function of the circuit breaker is to isolate the faulty part of

the power system in case of abnormal conditions such as faults.

Function
All circuit breakers perform the following functions: SENSE when an overcurrent occurs. MEASURE the amount of overcurrent. ACT by tripping the circuit breaker in a time frame necessary to prevent damage to itself and the associated load cables.

Protection System

Working Principle of Circuit Breaker

Operating Mechanism

Operating Mechanism

Trip Unit

Working Principle of Circuit Breaker

The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contact and moving contact.
In normal "on" condition of circuit breaker, these two contacts are physically connected to each other due to applied mechanical pressure on the moving contacts.

There is an arrangement stored potential energy in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker which is realized if switching signal given

to the breaker. The potential energy can be stored in the circuit breaker
by different ways like by deforming metal spring, by compressed air, or by hydraulic pressure. But whatever the source of potential energy, it must be released during operation

Working Principle of Circuit Breaker

Release of potential energy makes sliding of the moving contact at extremely fast manner. All circuit breaker have operating coils (tripping coils and close coil), whenever these coils are energized by switching pulse, the plunger inside them displaced. This operating coil plunger is typically attached to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker, as a result the mechanically stored potential energy in the breaker mechanism is released in forms of kinetic energy, which makes the moving contact to move as these moving contacts mechanically attached through a gear lever arrangement with the operating mechanism. After a cycle of operation of circuit breaker the total stored energy is released and hence the potential energy again stored in the operating mechanism of circuit breaker by means of spring charging motor or air compressor or by any other means.

Electrical principle of circuit breaker

The circuit breaker has to carry large rated or fault power. Due to this large power there is always dangerously high arcing between moving contacts and fixed contact during operation of circuit breaker. Again the arc in circuit breaker can be quenching safely if the dielectric strength between the current carrying contacts of circuit breaker increases rapidly during every current zero crossing of the alternating current. The dielectric strength of the media in between contacts can be increased in numbers of ways, like by compressing the ionized arcing media since compressing accelerates the deionization process of the media, by cooling the arcing media since cooling increase the resistance of arcing path or by replacing the ionized arcing media by fresh gasses. Hence a numbers of arc quenching processes should be involved in operation of circuit breaker.

Fault clearing time of a Circuit Breaker

Relaying Time : Time from fault inception to circuit of CB. the closure of trip

Breaker opening Time : Time from closure of trip circuit to the opening of the contacts of the circuit breaker. Arcing Time : Time from opening of the contacts of the CB to final arc extinction. Breaker interrupting Time : Breaker opening time + Arcing Time. Fault clearing Time : Relaying time + Breaker interrupting Time.

Arc Phenomenon
Formation of Arc: During opening of current carrying contacts in a circuit breaker the medium in between opening contacts become highly ionized through which the interrupting current gets low resistive path and continues to flow through this path even the contacts are physically separated.

During the flowing of current from one contact to other the path becomes so heated that it glows. This is called arc.

Arc Phenomenon

contd

During arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts depends upon the resistance. The greater resistance smaller the current that flows between the contacts.
The arc resistance depends upon i) Degree of ionization : Arc resistance increases with the decrease in number of ionized particles b/w the contact. ii) Length of Arc :Arc resistance increases with the length of arc. iii) Cross section of Arc : Arc resistance increases with the decrease in X- section of the arc.

Initiation of Arc
When fault occurs, there are some electrons between the contacts which will initiate the arc and the electrons are emitted which are produced by the following methods. (i) By high voltage gradient at cathode, resulting in field emission.

(ii) By increasing the temperature, resulting in thermionic emission.

By High Voltage Gradient : As moving contacts are separating from each other, the area of contact and pressure between the separating contact decreases. A high fault current causes potential drop (of the order of 106 V/cm) between the contacts which will remove the electrons from cathode surface. This process called field emission.

Initiation of Arc
By increasing the temperature : With separation of contacts there is decrease in contact area which will increase the current density and consequently the temperature of surface also will increase which will cause the emission of electronics

which is called thermal electron emission.

Note : In most of the circuit breakers the contacts are made up of copper which is having less thermionic emission

Thermionic Emission

Maintenance of arc
After initiation of arc, the electrons while travelling collide with another electrons to dislodge them from neutral molecule and thus arc is maintained. The ionizing is maintained by (i) high temperature of the medium around the contacts due to high current densities. Thus the kinetic energy gained by moving electrons is increased. (ii) The increasing in the kinetic energy of moving electrons due to the voltage gradient which dislodge more electrons from neutral molecule.

Arc Voltage

The Voltage drop across the arc is called Arc Voltage. As the arc path is purely resistive, the arc voltage is in phase with that arc current

Methods of Arc Interruption

There are two methods of Arc Interruption or Extinction are i) High resistance interruption ii) Current zero interruption

High Resistance Interruption

In this method, the arc resistance is increased so as to reduce the

current to such a value which will be insufficient to maintain the arc.

The arc resistance can be increased by cooling, lengthening, reducing cross section and splitting the arc.

It is employed for low power AC and DC circuit breakers.

Disadvantages:
When current is interrupted because of high resistance, a high voltage appears across the contacts of the circuit breaker.

If this voltage is very high and more than the withstanding capacity

of the gap between the contacts, the arc will strike again.

Therefore, this method is not suitable for large current interruption.

Current Zero Interruption

This method is applicable only in case of AC circuit breakers. There are two theories to explain the zero current interruption of the arc. i) Recovery rate theory ( Slepians Theory )

( also called Race theory )

ii) Energy balance theory ( Cassies Theory )

Recovery rate theory

The rate at which the gap recovers its dielectric strength, is compared with the rate at which re-striking voltage across the

contacts rises.
If the re-striking voltage rises more rapidly than the dielectric strength, the space breaks down and the arc persists and vice versa.

Recovery rate theory

Energy Balance Theory

According to this theory, if the rate of heat dissipation between the
contacts is greater than the rate at which heat is generated, the arc will be extinguished. Immediately after the current zero, the contact space contains ionized gas and therefore has a finite post-zero resistance.

The rising re-striking voltage causes a current to flow between the

contacts so that power is dissipated in the contact space.

Energy balance theory Contd..

If the heat so generated exceeds the rate at which heat can be dissipated from the contact space, ionization will persist and breakdown will occur, giving an arc for another half cycle.

A rapid increase of dielectric strength or post-zero resistance is

necessary for successful interruption and this can be achieved by: Lengthening of the arc Cooling Blast Effect.

Energy balance theory Contd..

Dielectric strength or post-zero resistance is proportional to the length of the gap so that lengthening by rapid opening of the contacts is obvious procedure. Natural combination of ions and electrons takes place more rapidly

if they are allowed to cool.

Cool non-ionized gas or liquid can be forced into the contact space thereby cooling the ions and electrons and sweeping them away. These methods are applied in oil and air-blast breakers

Energy Balance Theory

Re-Striking Voltage
The transient voltage that appears across the contacts at the instant of arc extinction is called the re-striking voltage.

At current zero, a high-frequency transient voltage appears across the contacts

and is caused by the rapid distribution of energy between the magnetic and electric fields associated with the plant and transmission lines of the system. The current interruption in the circuit depends upon this voltage.

If the re-striking voltage rises more rapidly than the dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts, the arc will persist for another half-cycle. On

the other hand, if the dielectric strength of the medium builds up more rapidly
than the re-striking voltage, the arc fails to restrike and the current will be interrupted.

Recovery Voltage
It is the normal frequency voltage (rms) that appear across the

contacts of circuit breaker after final arc extinction.

It is approximately equal to the system voltage. When contacts are opened current drops to zero at every half cycle. At current zero dielectric strength of the medium can be increased and thus prevent the break down by re-striking voltage.

Consequently the final arc extinction takes place and circuit current
is interrupted. After this current interruption the voltage appearing across the contacts is known as recovery voltage

Re-Striking Voltage

Rate of Re-Striking Voltage

Single Frequency Transients

Single Frequency Transients

Consider inductance L & capacitance C on only one

side of circuit breaker as shown in the above fig.

This circuit produces the single frequency re-striking voltage transient and oscillate at natural frequency, =
1 2

Depending on the values of L & C, the frequency ranges from 10 Hz to 10 kHz.

Double Frequency Transients

Double Frequency Transients

Consider inductance L & capacitance C on both sides of the circuit breaker as shown in the above fig.

The points 1 & 2 are equipotential points before clearing the fault. But after the arc extinction, there will be two circuits which may oscillate at their own natural frequencies and therefore a composite double frequency transient appears across circuit breaker.

The circuit configuration, the type of fault and the type neutral earthing are important factors which will decide the frequency, max. value of re striking voltage & RRRV.

Resistance Switching

Resistance Switching

To reduce the re striking voltage, RRRV and severity of

transient oscillations, a resistance is connected across the c ontacts of the circuit breaker. This known as resistance switching.

As the resistance is connected in parallel with the arc, a part of the arc current flows through this resistance

resulting in a decrease in the arc current and increasing

in the deionization of the arc path resistance of the arc.

Due to decrease in the arc current, re striking voltage,

RRRV are reduced.

The resistance may be automatically switched in with the help of a sphere gap.

Current Chopping Interruption of Inductive Currents Interruption of Low Magnetizing Current

When low inductive current (e.., current to shunt reactor or magnetizing of a transformer) is interrupted by a circuit breaker, current falls to zero before the natural current

zero. It is known as current chopping.

It so happens since the circuit breaker exerts the same force of arc quenching as it was with heavy short circuit

current.

At the time of contacts opened, ac current gradually reduce with low arc voltage. But at a certain time it

suddenly becomes zero due to large de-ionizing force.

The current in the arc is flowing from the source through the inductance and circuit breaker contacts.

The energy contained in the electro-magnetic field cannot become zero instantaneously, and as such, it changes into electro-static form of energy. i.e., current is diverted from the arc to the capacitor.

If i is the arc current, the energy stored in L, 2 =

1 2

1 2

2 , energy stored to C.

where v is the voltage developed across the breaker contacts, =

volts.

The voltage developed across the breaker contacts due to transfer of energy is called Prospective voltage. This voltage is extremely high as compared to the normal system voltage.

The deionizing force is still in action and current will again be chopped.
Successive chops may occur until a final chop brings the current to zero with no further re-strike since the gap is now in an advance of deionization.

Interruption of Capacitive Currents

Interruption

of

capacitive

current

produces

high

voltage transients across the gap of the circuit breaker.

This

occurs

when

an

unloaded long transmission line or capacitor bank is

switched off.

May God spread prosperity and joy in your life on this New Year and fulfil all your dreams.