UNIT II

Solar Energy
B.Tech. 6
th
Semester
By:
S. S. Joshi
Lecturer
Electrical Engg Dept.
SOT PDPU

Two Main Categories:
Solar Thermal Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
Water heating and cooking Electricity production
How does Solar
Energy works?
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Basics
Sun angles
Earth's yearly revolution,
month-by-month.
Sun Earth Relationships
Solar Constant
The solar constant is defined as the total energy received
from the sun per unit time ,on a surface of unit area kept
perpendicular to the radiation, in space just outside the
earth's atmosphere when the earth is at its mean distance
from the sun.
Solar constant have approximately value is 1370 W/m
2
.
Solar Radiation at the Earths surface
The solar radiation that penetrates the earth's atmosphere
and reaches the surface differs in both amount and character
from the radiation at the top of the atmosphere.
In the 1
st
place, part of the radiation is reflected back into
the space, especially by clouds.
Further more the radiation entering the atmosphere is partly
absorbed by molecules in the air.
Oxygen and ozone(O
3
), formed from oxygen, absorb nearly
all the ultraviolet radiation and water vapor and carbon
dioxide absorb some of the energy in the infrared range.
Direct or Beam Radiation
Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or
scattered and reaches the ground directly
from the sun is called "direct(or Beam)
radiation".

Diffuse Radiation:
The diffuse radiation is that solar radiation received from the sun
after its direction has been changed by reflection and scattering
by the atmosphere.
Total or Global Radiation:
The total solar radiation received at any point on the earth's
surface is the sum of the direct and diffuse radiation.

Irradiance, W/m2 (G):
The rate at which radiant energy is incident on
a surface, per unit area of the surface.
The symbol G is used for solar irradiance, with
appropriate subscripts for beam, diffuse or
total.
Irradiation, J/m
2
:
The incident energy per unit area on a surface,
found by integration of irradiance over a
specified by time, usually an hour a day.

Elliptical orbit of earths
revolution
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
7% more radiation
Extraterrestrial Radiation
Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth is
called extraterrestrial radiation.
A circle of constant longitude passing through a given place on the earth's
surface and the terrestrial poles.
Terrestrial Radiation
Terrestrial radiation is heat that is radiated
from the earth, solar radiation is heat radiated
from the sun.
Beam radiation
Solar radiation along the line joining the
receiving point and the sun is called beam
radiation.
Important terms
Air mass:
A term called air mass (AM) is often used as a measure of
the distance traveled by beam radiation through the
atmosphere before it reaches a location on the earth's
surface. The air mass is the ratio of the path of the sun's
rays through the atmosphere to the length of path when the
sun is at zenith.
The zenith is an imaginary point directly "above" a
particular location, on the imaginary celestial sphere
Basic Earth-Sun angles
Earth's Equator:
It is an imaginary great circle normal to the earth's axis,
dividing the distance between the earth's poles along its
surface into two equal parts. The equator divides the earth
into two hemispheres called Northern and Southern
hemispheres.
Basic Earth-Sun angles
Meridian:
It is necessary to select some reference location on the earth for
helping in locating a particular position. An imaginary great circle
passing through the point and the two poles, intersecting the
equator at right angle is called prime meridian. The location through
which the prime meridian is passing is Greenwich (0
o
Longitude,
England.)

Longitude:
It is the angular distance of location, measured east or west
from the prime meridian. For example longitude of Bhopal
is 77
o
30' E.
Latitude:
It represents the angular location north or south of the
equator, north positive. The latitude of a point on the
surface of the earth is its angular distance north or south of
the equator measured from the center of the earth. Denoted
by

|
Declination angle ():
The declination is the angular distance of the
sun's rays north (or south) of the equator. It is
the angle between a line extending from the
center of the sun and the center of the earth
and the projection of this line upon the earth's
equatorial plane.
Hour angle:
The hour angle is the angular distance between the meridian
of the observer and the meridian whose plane contains the
sun. The hour angle is zero at solar noon (when the sun
reaches its highest point in the sky) and increases by 15
o
every
hour, morning negative, afternoon positive. The hour angle is
the angle through which the earth must turn to bring the
meridian of a point directly in Line with the sun's rays.

Solar Altitude angle:
The angle between the horizontal and line to the sun.
Denoted by
S
o
Solar Zenith angle:
Angle between the vertical and line to the sun, i.e.
complement of the solar altitude angle
Denoted by
Z
u
Solar Azimuth angle:
It is the angle between the projection of suns ray to the point
on the horizontal plane and line due south passing through
that point.
Value of azimuth angle is taken +ve when it is measured from
south towards west.
Denoted by
S

Solar altitude angle

Surface azimuth angle:
The deviation of the
projection on a horizontal
plane of the normal to the
surface from the local
meridian, with zero due
south, east negative and
west positive;
Denoted by ;

o o
180 180 s s
Slop or Tilt angle:
The angle between inclined slop and horizontal plane.
Denoted by
|
Solar Energy
Solar to thermal
conversion
Solar to electricity
conversion
PV / Photovoltaic
Solar to Thermal
Conversion
Basic
How it looks like
Where the tubes are situated
What kind of conversion is going on???
What is a solar collector?
Main Types
Classification/s
How it looks like
Solar Collector
Non concentrating or flat
plate type
Concentrating type
Focus type collector Non-focus type collector
Modified plate
collector
Compound
Parabolic
Concentrating
type collector
Line focus
collector
Point focus
collector
Cylindrical
parabolic
collector
Fixed
mirror solar
collector
Linear
Fresnel lens
collector
Parabolic dish
collector
Circular Fresnel lens concentrator
collector
Hemispherical bowl mirror
concentrator
Central tower receiver
Non Concentrating or
Flat Plate Type
Focus Type Collector
Point Focus Type Collector
Cylindrical Parabolic Solar
Collector
Fixed Mirror Solar Collector
Linear Fresnel Lens Solar
Collector
Parabolic Dish Collector
Hemispherical bowl mirror
concentrator
Central tower receiver
system
Flat Plate Collector
Principle of conversion:
If the incident radiation is unity on body then
radiation can be absorbed, reflected and
transmitted.
Key components:
Absorber plate
Transparent cover
Fluid tubes and channels
Thermal insulator
Tight container or box
Modified Flat plate collector
Compound Parabolic
Concentrator
Cylindrical Parabolic
Concentrator
Linear Fresnel Lens Collector
Fixed mirror solar concentrator
Parabolic dish collector
Hemispherical bowl mirror
concentrator

Circular Fresnel lens concentrator

Central Tower Receiver Collector

PV Cell
The physics of the PV cell is very similar to that
of the classical diode with a pn junction.
When the junction absorbs light, the energy of
absorbed photons is transferred to the electron
proton system of the material, creating charge
carriers that are separated at the junction.
The charge carriers may be electronion pairs in a
liquid electrolyte or electronhole pairs in a solid
semiconducting material.
PV effect converts the photon energy
into voltage across the PN junction
The charge carriers in the junction region create a
potential gradient, get accelerated under the
electric field, and circulate as current through an
external circuit.
The origin of the PV potential is the difference in
the chemical potential, called the Fermi level.
What is it?????

When they are joined, the junction approaches a new
thermodynamic equilibrium. Such equilibrium can be
achieved only when the Fermi level is equal in the
two materials.
This occurs by the flow of electrons from one
material to the other until a voltage difference is
established between them, which has a potential just
equal to the initial difference of the Fermi level.
This potential drives the photocurrent in the PV
circuit.
Basic construction of PV cell with
performance-enhancing features
SPV Technology
MODULE AND ARRAY
Merits of PV system
Use of clean, cheap., noiseless, safe, renewable energy to
produce electricity at the location of utilization.
Suitable for remote loads away from main electrical
network and at places where other fuels are scare and
costly. Cost of distribution lines can be eliminated.
Suitable for portable mobile loads eg radios, cars, buses,
space crafts etc.
Reliable service, long 15 years life.
Modest maintenance.

Limitations of PV system
Irregular, intermittent supply of solar energy.
Need for storage battries.
High capital cost (Rs/kW) due to larger number of PV
cell, low output power, low efficiency and high
technology involved.
Not economical for central power plants of MW rating
due to very large area of PV panels and very large energy
storage system.
Require storage batteries in large amount and diesel
generator sets in cloudy wheather.
Installed at roof tops only
Low efficiency.

EQUIVALENT ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
Rs = 0 (no series loss), and Rsh = (no leakage to ground)
Rs varies from 0.05 to 0.10 and Rsh from 200 to 300 .

The open-circuit voltage Voc of the cell is obtained when the load current is
zero, i.e., when I = 0, and is given by the following:
Voc = V + Irsh

The diode current is given by the classical diode current expression:
where
I
D
= the saturation current of the diode; Q = electron charge = 1.61019 C
A = curve-fitting constant, k = Boltzmann constant = 1.3810
23
J/K
T = Temperature on absolute scale K
) 1 ln(
) (
) 1 ln(
) 1 (
) 1 (
Rsh; Ignore Initially
0
0
) (
0
0
+

= +
+
= +

=
=
=
+
I
I I
q
t
I R V
t
I R V q
I
I I
I e I I
I e I I
I I I
L ph
k
L S L
k
L S L
L ph
L
t
I R V q
ph
L
t
qV
ph
d ph L
k
L S L
k
d

much.... that reduced

not is Voc halfed Iph if
ln(Iph), Voc As
) 1 ln(
0 circuit open if
) 1 ln(
0
0
o

+ =
= =>
+

=
I
I
q
t
V
I
I R
I
I I
q
t
V
ph
k
OC
L
L S
L ph
k
L
Mathematical
Proof
L
sh
S L L
R I V A
ph
L
sh
D
AV
ph
sh d ph L
I
R
R I V
e I I
I
R
V
e I I
I I I I
S L L
D
=
+

=
=
+
) 1 (
) 1 (
Rsh; Including
) (
0
0
Mathematical
Proof
Current vs. voltage (I-V) characteristic of the PV
module in sunlight and in the dark
Power vs. voltage (P-V) characteristic of
the PV module in sunlight
I-V characteristic of a 22-W PV module at
full and half sun intensities
THE PV IV CURVE UNDER
STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS (STC)
The I V curve and power output for a
PV module
The maximum power point (MPP) corresponds to the biggest
rectangle that can fit beneath the I V curve. The fill factor (FF) is
the ratio of the area (power) at MPP to the area formed by a
rectangle with sides V
OC
and I
SC
.
Fill factors around 7075% for crystalline silicon solar modules
are typical, while for multi junction amorphous-Si modules, it is
closer to 5060%.
Physics of Shading
Effect of Shading
Consider the case when the bottom n 1 cells
still have full sun and still some how carry
their original current I so they will still produce
their original voltage Vn1. This means that
the output voltage of the entire module VSH
with one cell shaded will drop to,
Hot Spot Heating
If the operating current of the overall series string
approaches the short-circuit current of the "bad" cell,
the overall current becomes limited by the bad cell.
Example
Bypass Diodes for Shade Mitigation
Figure shows a typical situation.
In Fig. (a) a solar cell in full sun operating in
its normal range contributes about 0.5 V to the
voltage output of the module, but in the
equivalent circuit shown in (b) a shaded cell
experiences a drop as current is diverted
through the parallel and series resistances.
In full sun a cell may contribute around 0.5 V to the module
output; but when a cell is shaded, it can have a large voltage drop
across it
Need of bypass diode
The voltage drop problem in shaded cells could
be to corrected by adding a bypass diode across
each cell, as shown in Figure.
When a solar cell is in the sun, there is a voltage
rise across the cell so the bypass diode is cut off
and no current flows through itit is as if the
diode is not even there.
When the solar cell is shaded, however, the drop
that would occur if the cell conducted any current
would turn on the bypass diode, diverting the
current flow through that diode.
Mitigating the shade problem with a bypass diode.
In the sun (a), the bypass diode is cut off and all the normal
current goes through the solar cell. In shade (b), the bypass diode
conducts current around the shaded cell, allowing just the diode
drop of about 0.6 V to occur
How improved in I V curve
Showing the ability of bypass diodes to mitigate
shading when modules are charging a 65 V battery.
Without bypass diodes, a partially shaded module
constricts the current delivered to the load (b). With
bypass diodes, current is diverted around the shaded
module.
Blocking Diodes
Bypass diodes help current go around a shaded or
malfunctioning module within a string. This not only improves
the string performance, but also prevents hot spots from
developing in individual shaded cells.
When strings of modules are wired in parallel, a similar
problem may arise when one of the strings is not performing
well.
Instead of supplying current to the array, a malfunctioning or
shaded string can withdraw current from the rest of the array.
By placing blocking diodes (also called isolation diodes) at the
top of each string as shown in Fig., the reverse current drawn
by a shaded string can be prevented.
Blocking diodes prevent reverse current from flowing
down malfunctioning or shaded strings
Simplest PV battery system
Necessity..
As long as the user is careful about not letting the
batteries discharge too deeply, or be overcharged,
the system will perform well. There is another
concern, however.
The system shown in Fig. allows the battery to
leak current back through the PV module at night,
which raises the question of whether it might be
worthwhile to add a blocking diode as shown in
Fig. to prevent that nightly discharge.
Impact of a Blocking Diode
to Control Night time Battery
Leakage.
A Case study
Statement
In the example just presented, the blocking diode loses more energy
during the day while it is conducting (18 Wh) than it saves overnight
(8.1 Wh).
Another way to look at it is that without a blocking diode, only about
2% of the Ah of daytime solar gains are lost overnight. In spite of these
arguments, blocking diodes still make some sense.
Since the operating point of the batteryPV system is generally some
distance to the left of the knee of the I V curve, shifting the battery I
V curve approximately 0.6 V to the right to cover the diode drop barely
changes current delivered by the PVs.
That is, in terms of amp-hours, the diode doesnt lose any during
battery charging, but does stop night time battery discharge, so in
terms of amp-hours it does offer a modest net benefit.