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Outline
Routing Algorithms The Network Layer in The Internet
Outline
Routing Algorithms The Network Layer in The Internet
Routing Algorithm
Routing algorithm
Datagram Virtual circuit
Datagram Routing
Virtual-Circuit Routing
Comparison
Optimality Principle
If router J is on the optimal path from router I to router K, the the optimal path from J to K also falls along the same route. Sink tree
The set of optimal routes from all sources to a given destination
The goal of all routing algorithms is to discover and use the sink trees for all routers.
Sink Tree
Flooding
Every incoming packet is sent out on every outgoing link except the one it arrived on. Termination of flooding process
Hop counter Record of packet which has been flooded
Applications of flooding
Military application Comparison
Count-to-Infinity Problem
Problem of DVR
Does not take line bandwidth into account. Take too long to converge.
Hierarchical Routing
As networks grow in size, the router routing tables grow proportionally. Each router has responsible for its region and knows nothing about the internal structure of other router.
Broadcasting Routing
The source simply send a distinct packet to each destination.
Waste bandwidth Have to know complete list of all destinations
Flooding
Generate too many packets Consume too much bandwidth
Multicast Routing
Each router computes a spanning tree covering all other routers. When a process sends a multicast packet to a group
Examining the spanning tree of this group Removing all lines that do not lead to hosts that are members of group
Core-based tree
A host wanting to multicast sends packets to the core, which does the multicast along the spanning tree.
All hosts are assumed to have a permanent home location that never changes. Hosts also have a permanent home address that can be used to determine their home location.
Active neighbor
Every node runs a background process that periodically recomputes each finger by calling successor.
Outline
Routing Algorithm The Network Layer in The Internet
Network layer provides best-efforts way to transport datagrams from source to destination.
The IP Protocol
The IPv4 header
IP Address
IP address formats
IP Address (contd)
Special IP address
Subnet
Split a network into several parts for internal use.
Subnet (contd)
Some bits are taken away from the host number to create a subnet number. For example, a university can use a 6-bit subnet number and a 10-bit host number, allowing fro up to 64 subnets. Outside the network, the subnet is not visible, so allocating a new subnet does not require contacting ICANN.
Subnet (contd)
Subnet mask indicates the split between network + subnet number and host.
NAT changes the Internet from a connectionless network to a kind of connection-oriented network. Violation of protocol layering
layer k may not make any assumptions about what layer k+1 has put into the payload field.
DHCP
Both manual IP address assignment and automatic assignment
Policies are typically manually configured into each BGP router and are not part of protocol.
Multiconnected networks
Could be used for transit traffic, except that they refuse
Transit networks
Willing to handle third-party packet
Internet Multicasting
IP uses class D address to support multicast. Two kinds of group address
Permanent address Temporary address
Mobile IP
Increment of portable computers. Major goals
Mobile host must be able to use its home IP address anywhere. Changes to software and router are not permitted. No overhead should be incurred when a mobile host is at home.
Mobile IP (contd)
See section 5.2.9 (Routing for Mobile Hosts) When foreign shows up at a foreign site, it contacts the foreign host there and registers. The foreign host contacts the users home agent and gives it a care-of-address.
Mobile IP (contd)
Each foreign agent periodically broadcast its address and type of service, which called advertisement. Registration for impolite mobile hosts that leave without saying goodbye.
IPv6
While NAT may buy a few more years time, IP in its current form (IPv4) is numbered. IETF issued a call for proposal and discussion in RFC 1550. IPv6 is not compatible with IPv4, but it is compatible with other auxiliary Internet protocol.
IPv6 (contd)
Main features
Longer addresses Simplification of the header Better support for options Security Quality of service
IPv6 (contd)
The IPv6 fixed header
IPv6 (contd)
New notation of 16-byte address
8000:0000:0000:0000:0123:4567:89AB:CDEF 8000::123:4567:89AB:CDEF
IPv6 (contd)
Extension header is encoded as (Type, Length, Value) tuple.
Type is a 1-byte field telling which option this is. Length is a 1-byte field telling how long the value is. Value is any information required.
IPv6 (contd)
IPv6 extension header
IPv6 (contd)
Controversies
Hop limit field length Maximum packet size Checksum Mobile issue
Introduction to TCP
Function of providing reliable end-to-end byte stream over an unreliable internetwork. Lack of IP
No guarantee that packets will be delivered properly. Packets may arrive in the wrong order.
For senders
Nagles algorithm
Where is a smothing factor that determines how much weight is given to the old value. TCP uses RTT to estimate retransmission timer.
Transactional TCP
Efficiency problem of TCP