LECT 3 - Urban Env - Aug 12, 2008

Urban Environmental Problems
Prof. Rutool Sharma
Faculty of Planning & Public Policy

Centre for Environmental Planning & Technology (CEPT) University, Ahmedabad
CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma
Urban Environment
 Environment is a vast, diverse and complex subject
 Urban Environment has several associated subjects :

• Built environment
• Natural resources
• Sanitation infrastructure
• Pollution
• Governance
• Environmental laws etc.
 There are several ways to explain the subject

Presentation Structure
 Section 1: Urban Environment - Introduction
Discussion - Urban Environment

Need to study urban environment
Key urban environmental problems / issues
Environmental risks - vulnerable groups
Impacts at various scales
Short case studies
 Section 2: Quality of Urban Environment

Urban Environment - Introduction

Randomly listing urban components :
• Roads, Traffic, Street Lights
• Trees, Lakes, Gardens, Ponds
• Buildings
• Solid waste, Slums
• Stray Animals
• Human beings
• Industries

“Largely, human activities are responsible for
rapidly changing environment ………… and
most of such activities are associated to
urbanization”

Population rise & Urban areas
Source: http://www.susps.org/images/worldpopgr.gif

 Rapid urbanization
 Factors:
a. Rural to urban migration
b. Natural population rise
c. Classification of rural area
into urban area
 Attracted:
a. Employment
b. Lifestyle
Source: http://www.smarteconomy.typepad.com/

Source: http://www.raisethehammer.org

 Stress on natural resources due to high consumption

• Urban areas take up just 2% of the earth’s surface but consumes about 75% of
industrial wood.
• 60% of the water withdrawn for human use goes to urban areas and about half of
that to irrigate food crops for urban residents, roughly one-third for use by industry,
and the remainder for drinking and sanitation.
 Thus, urban areas claim the ecological output and life-support functions
of both nearby areas as well as distant regions
 The extent of urban environmental impact increases not only as

population grows but also as per capita demand for resources rises,
both from industries and consumers
 Overuse, degradation and depletion of natural resources are common

outcomes of urbanization (Heavy Ecological Footprint).

 Poor living conditions:

• Fulfillment of basic needs in terms of housing and services
• Pollution and environmental degradation
• Jobs and opportunities
• Inadequate social and public utilities
• Lacks in provision of infrastructure facilities
• Overuse of resources
 Urban poor - most vulnerable group (low affordability)

Development of urban areas
Living in urban areas become:
1. Stress on natural Unhealthy

resources
Unsafe
2. Poor living conditions
Stressful
 Development of urban areas should be such that it does not

impose unsustainable demands on natural resources,
ecosystems & global cycles.

Environmental goals for cities:
 Healthy living & working environment
 Adequate provision of basic services like water supply, sewerage

network, efficient solid waste collection, roads etc. necessary for
healthy living conditions
 An ecologically sustainable relationship between the demands of

consumers and businesses and the resources, waste sinks and
ecosystems on which they draw.

For achieving these goals:
City’s economy City’s built-form
Physical environment Biological environment

(soil, water resources, climate) (flora and fauna)
 Reducing environmental hazards
 Checking depletion of environmental capital or resources

Urban expansion & environmental problems
 In developing countries / low income countries, urban expansion has

taken place without:
• Increase in needed infrastructure and services for healthy living environment
• With little or no effective pollution control measure
• With forms of urban governance which is unable to handle multiple responsibilities
• Little regards about modification of earth’s surface like changes in natural flow of
water, demand on surrounding region for building materials, loss of agricultural /
forest land etc.
Population faces high risk of natural or human-induced hazards

Scale, Severity & Frequency

Quality of Urban Environment

“This intrusion is DEVELOPMENT, and there is a need to govern it”

Urbanisation converts land at the rural-urban fringe to uses such as residential
development, industries, commercial estates etc.
• It may affect land which is regarded as an environmental asset, such as

remnant bush-land or a well-managed private holding, or which is
economically valuable with agricultural or mineral potential.
• Land at the rural-urban fringe is also used for activities that service the
adjacent urban area, such as waste disposal or gravel extraction.

• Irrespective of being aware about the fact, more and more land area is put to
urban use.
• We forget that for urbanisation, Man is dependent on Environment.
• Human activities at various times has involved a good deal of irrational

behaviour.
• With increasing intensity of urbanisation, human society has adapted environing

nature and has made all kinds of incursions into it

The Almeria
province of
southern
Spain has
undergone
massive and
rapid
agricultural
change.
Aerial Image source: B.B.C and UNEP

In 1974 the landscape is one of traditional farmland but by 2000 a huge area has
been covered by greenhouses for the mass production of market produce.

Iguazú
National
Park, located
in Argentina
near its
borders with
Brazil and
Paraguay,
contains
remnants of
highly
endangered
rain forest.
Aerial Image source: B.B.C and UNEP
These images clearly show how protecting an area can halt encroaching deforestation.

Destruction of natural resources
Deforestation
Industrialisation
Real Estate Development Expanding cities

Poor living conditions
Natural resource degradation Pollution

Disasters

• Represents health and hygiene level in the city
• Indicates the Quality of life in the city
• Is a decisive factor in creating image of the city

• Limited resources
• Apathetic attitude of citizens towards cleanliness of the city
• Urban development mechanisms and urban management systems

in India encourages problems
“Sanitation infrastructure is inadequate in almost all

cities in India”

 Pollution (Air, Water, Noise, Solid waste, land)
 Releasing products like waste, waste water etc.
 Depletion of natural resources (water bodies, natural drainage

pattern, vegetation)
 Health and hygiene
 Urban land is increasingly scarce
 Population densities
Key Environmental problems

 Classification – Home, Workplace, Neighbourhood and City
 Key Environmental problems:
• Disease causing agents or pollutants in the human environment (air,

water, soil, food) which can damage human health
• Shortages of natural resources essential to human health
• Physical hazards (accidental fires, flooding, mudslides etc)

 Health problems associated with inadequate water supply & sanitation
• Lack of availability of water, sewers, drainage, waste collection and

basic measures for disease prevention / health care, may result in
health related problems
• Linkage between water and sanitation is very crucial

 Inadequate provision of water
• Piped water supply – major problem in urban areas, hence the urban
dwellers have to use other alternatives (rivers, ponds, nallas, purchase
water) which may be contaminated
• Quantity of water available and its related price to be paid is an

important factor
• Individual connection vs. group connections (well or stand post) – time

consuming, shortage of taps, low water pressure, queues, extra burden
to fill water, source of tension and fight
• Individual connection / Piped supply (so called adequately served) –

water conservation measures may be floated by the authority so
availability of water may be reduced drastically, low per capita supply,
low pressure, water contamination due to flow of waste water into water
supply lines, purchase water from vendors, development of alternative
sources such as borewells thus depleting ground water
 Sanitation
• Majority of the waterborne diseases are excreta-related
• Priority to provide sanitation infrastructure is much lower than water

infrastructure – creates problematic situation
• Hygienic means of disposal is not available – very low coverage of

sewerage system
• Sanitation facilities for urban poor are generally not available or are often
allotted on shared basis. Problems associated with toilets on shared
basis w.r.t to accountability and at times are ultimately not used. Also
availability of water for cleaning the toilets is also a question.
• ‘Pay and use’ public toilets (shared) may not work as it may not be
affordable depending on the family size and amount to be paid.
• Only option - open defecation. Problem for female. Also open areas are
becoming scarce due to rapid urbanization.
Hence it is not only important to provide
• Improved water and sanitation in order to influence the control of various
diseases, but also
• Level of service w.r.t water quality / quantity / convenient supply and
provision for disposal of excreta and waste water is equally important for
maintaining health and hygiene.
 Overcrowding - Transmission of diseases
 Food borne and food related diseases
 Accidents in the home – injury / death
 Indoor air pollution – use of stoves, lack of ventilation & burning of coal,
wood, biomass

 Sites were the houses are located are also critical
 Four problems: dangerous sites, no collection of household refuse, disease
vectors and inadequate provision for drainage and other forms of infrastructure
 House sites (Hazardous land site)

• Natural hazards – on steep slopes, flood plains, desert land (generally
illegal houses)
• Risks for human activities – around solid waste dumps, open drains /
sewers or close to quarries or factories with high levels of air pollution
(illegal or legal residential areas, but low income)
• Combination of the two: close to airports or highways (illegal or legal
residential areas, but low income)
• Lack of provision of public spaces like open areas, playgrounds, social
amenties – affects youth and children
• People living near such sites are generally not aware about the risks /
danger
• Such sites often lack infrastructure facilities
 Waste
Solid waste
• Inadequate or no collection – lack of funding, equipments, manpower etc.
• Household dump waste on roads, open plots, ditches, lakes etc – leading
to problems like blocking of roads, smell, disease vectors, pests, clogging
of drainage channels and overflowing of these channels etc.
Sewerage
• Deficient provision of sanitation facilities and network – households
dispose toilet waste into drains. When drains overflow the waste is spread
across the site.
• Provision of septic tanks is also very common in new developing areas or
areas without network support by ULBs. Problems arise when the septic
tank is full or any kind of leakage occurs.
• Health hazard, food contamination, fire hazard, burning of waste leads to

air pollution, generation of leachate from decomposting waste can
contaminate local water sources.
 Disease vectors / insects
• Many vectors live, breed or feed within or around houses and settlements
• May cause ill health or premature death – disease they carry or cause
• Diseases may be infectious and contagious, may spread wide like an
epidemic
• Urban expansion may also change local ecology in ways that favour the
emergence or multiplication of particular disease vectors / insects.
 Drainage
• Removal of unwanted water
• Stagnant water may act as a breeding place for several vectors or insects
• Helps to prevent waste water from contaminating local surface water
bodies or shallow aquifers
• Helps in reducing human exposure to excreta

 Air pollution
 Water pollution
 Noise pollution
 Industrial pollution

Pollution:
Degradation of quality due to the presence of various contaminants.
Any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in such

concentration that can produce undesirable effects on man and his environment.
Environmental Pollution:
An undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of the

air, water or land that can harmfully affect health, survival or activities of human or
other living organisms.
 Pollution occurs when the environment becomes overloaded beyond the

capacity of the normal processing systems.

As we step outside our house, we notice
several common air polluting sources:
• smoke from the exhaust vehicles;

• smoke billowing from a factory chimney;
• speeding cars causing dust to rise from the roads;
• burning of solid waste
• and even someone smoking a cigarette
Other natural phenomena are also responsible

for air pollution:
• eruption of a volcano
• forest fires

Air Pollutants: Substances responsible for
causing air pollution
Present in air as solid particles or gaseous

form
• Primary pollutants:
Pollutants emitted directly from
(identifiable) sources and mix with air
• Secondary pollutants:
Some pollutants may react with one
another or with the basic components of
air to form new pollutants called
Secondary pollutants

Natural Man-made
• Volcanoes • Domestic burning of wood
• Forest fires • Burning of fossil fuel
• Sulphur springs • Industrialisation
• Spray from the ocean • Agricultural activities
• Natural geysers • Vehicular emissions
• Deflation of sands & dust • Air craft
• Natural organic & inorganic decays • Wars
• Vegetative decays • Nuclear tests
• Marsh gases • Deforestation
• Extra terrestrial bodies • Incineration
• Cosmic dust • Power generation
• Pollen grains of flowers • Mining
• Soil debris • Metallurgy
• Fungal spores • Waste treatment plants
• Photochemical reactions • Refrigeration industries

 Specific pollutants causing health effects: Sulphur dioxide,
Carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, Hydrogen Sulphide, Ozone,
Lead, Fluorides, Hydrocarbon vapours, Carcinogenic agents,
Insecticides, Radioactive isotopes
 Effect of air pollution on animals & plants
 Effects on art treasure / archeological structures

Prime factors affecting human health in terms of Air pollution are:
1. Nature of pollutants
2. Concentration of pollutants
3. Duration of exposure
4. State of health of receptor
5. Age group of receptor
• Generates objectionable odor and reduces visibility

• Eye, nose, throat and respiratory tract irritation
• Odor nuisance (gases like hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and
mercaptans)
• Increase in mortality rate
• Asthmatic attacks
• Chronic-pulmonary diseases
• Increases stress on people suffering from cardio-vascular/pulmonary
diseases
• Hydrogen fluoride causes disease of bone and mottling of teeth
• Carcinogenic agents cause cancer
• Dust particles cause respiratory disease
• Heavy metals if enter lungs may cause poisoning

Pollutants Effects
Particulate Matter • Respiratory problems, toxic effects on man, materials, plants and animals.
(PM) • Dust coating on leaves reduces photosynthesis and reduce plant growth
Oxides of Nitrogen • NO (Nitric Oxide) and NO2 (Nitrogen Dioxide) cause adverse affect on health
• Nitrogen dioxide is known to cause occupation disease
• It is estimated that eye and nasal irritation will be observed after exposure to about 15
ppm of nitrogen dioxide and pulmonary discomfort after brief exposures to 25 ppm of
nitrogen dioxide
• Children – more susceptible to respiratory diseases (specially during winters)
• Causes smog and acid rain
Sulfur Dioxide • Sulphur trioxide is very irritant

(SO2 ) • Much stronger than Sulphur dioxide causing severe bronchospasms at elatively low levels
of concentrations
• SO2, Colourless gas , sharp and pungent order
• It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain

Pollutants Effects
Carbon Monoxide • It lowers the amount of oxygen that enters our blood
(CO) • CO has a strong affinity for combining with hemoglobin of blood to form
carboxyhaemoglobin (CoHb)
• This reduces the ability of hemoglobin to carry oxygen to body tissues
• It affects the central nervous system, also responsible for heart attacks and high
mortality rate
• It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and sleepy
Ozone (O3) • High toxic effects -when present within Earth’s atmosphere
(Photochemical • Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn, and water
oxidents) • It lowers our resistance to colds and pneumonia
• Damage chromosomes of the plant cell
CFCs, Lead & • When released into the air, CFCs rise to stratosphere. In stratosphere, it comes in
Aldehydes contact with few other gases, which leads to reduction of ozone layer (that protects
Earth from harmful UV rays of the sun).
• Hydrocarbons are believed to cause lung cancer
• Lead emitted from automobile exhausts is a cumulative poison and is dangerous
particularly to children as it can cause damage to brain. It can cause nervous system
damage and digestive problems and, in some cases, cause cancer.
• Aldehydes & acids formed can cause eye, nose and throat irritation

• Integral component of air pollution control
• Air quality can be evaluated by comparing the data with regulated standards.
• The analysis is helpful in implementing control measures for reducing air

pollution.
• It provides information on nature and quantities of various pollutants emitted

into atmosphere.
• Air Quality Monitoring: Measurement and Sampling
 Measurement: Ambient Air Quality – pollutant levels in ambient atmosphere

are measured
 Sampling: Stack sampling – Pollutants emitted from source such as smoke

stack are measured

Methods of collection for gaseous pollutants:
1. Grab Sampling
2. Adsorption in Liquids
3. Adsorption on a solid material
4. Freeze out sampling
Methods of collection of Particulate matter:

1. Sedimentation (Dust Fall Jar)
2. High Volume Filtration (HVAS)
• Respirable dust samplers instruments have been used for monitoring
total suspended particulate matter (TSPM), Respirable fraction (<10
microns) & gaseous pollutants like SO2 and NOx.
• Charcoal filled glass tubes is deployed for collection of Carbon
monoxide.Gas chromatography techniques have been used for the
estimation of CO.

Sr. No. Parameters Technique Technical Minimum
protocol detectable limit
(µ g/m3)
1. Total suspended Respirable dust IS-5182 5.0
particulate matter sampler
(Gravimetric method)
2. Respirable Respirable dust IS-5182 5.0
Particulate matter sampler
(Gravimetric method)
3. Sulfur dioxide Modified west & gaeke IS-5182 4.0
4. Oxide of Nitrogen Jacob & Hochheisher IS-5182 4.0
5. Carbon Monoxide Gas Chromatography IS-5182 12.5

Pollutants Time weighted Industrial area Residential Sensitive area
average (µg/Nm3 ) rural & others (µg/Nm3 )
(µg/Nm3 )
Sulphur Dioxide Annual Average / 80/ 120 60/80 15/ 30
(SO2) 24 hours
Oxides of Annual Average / 80/ 120 60/80 15/ 30
nitrogen (NOx) 24 hours
Suspended Annual Average / 360/500 140/200 70/100
particulate 24 hours
matter (SPM)
Respirable Annual Average / 120/150 60/100 50/75
particulate 24 hours
matter (RPM)
Carbon 8 hours 5.0 mg/m3 2.0 mg/m3 1.0 mg/m3

Monoxide 1 hour 10.0 mg/m3 4.0 mg/m3 2.0 mg/m3
(CO)
Source: Central Pollution Control Board

• Emission of air pollutants can be reduced by:
1. Installing control equipments

• Cyclone separator
• Venturi scrubber
• Electro Static Precipitator (ESP)
• Fabric Filters
2. Making proper changes or modifications in raw materials,

operations and system control at the industries or Air Pollution
prevention at source.
3. To abate vehicular air pollution utilization of catalytic converters

and clean fuel.

Water pollution is a phenomenon that is
characterized by the deterioration of the
quality of land water or sea water as a
result of human activities.
• It is a global problem
• Affects both industrialized as well as the

developing nations, in rich and poor countries
both
• However the nature of water problems varies

from place to place and from country to
country

• Oxygen demanding waste (domestic sewage, animal manure, and some
industrial waste)
• Disease causing agents (bacteria, parasites, viruses)
• Inorganic chemicals and minerals (acids, salts, toxic metals)
• Organic chemicals (pesticides, plastics, detergents, oil)
• Plant nutrients (nitrates and phosphates)
• Sediments (soils, silt, other solids from land erosion)
• Radioactive substances
• Heat (from industralised and power plant cooling water)

Rapidly degradable (non persistent)
• Pollutants that can be broken down fairly quickly by natural chemical

cycling processess.
• e.g. domestic sewage, plant nutrients, some synthetic organic chemicals
Slowly degradable (persistent)
• Pollutants remain for long periods of time but are eventually broken down
or reduced to harmless levels by natural process.
• e.g. radioisotopes, DDT
Non-degradable
• Pollutants not broken down by natural purifying processes.

• e.g. metals like mercury, lead and arsenic

Point sources Non-point sources
• Sewage treatment plants; • Runoff of sediments from natural
and human caused forest fires,
• Storm water runofff from combined construction, logging, farming;
line;
• Runoff of chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, saline irrigation water
• Industrial plants;
from croplands;
• Animal feedlots
• Urban storm water runoff;
• Drainage of acids, minerals,

sediments from active or
abandoned mines;
• Spills of oils and other hazardous

materials

 Specific pollutants causing health effects
• Water borne infectious diseases
 Effect of air pollution on animals & plants

• Nutrient pollution
• Chemical contamination
• Marine debris
• Thermal pollution
 Cost to ULBs / Consumers

• Treating polluted water

Parameter Effects
Temperature • Some aquatic organism die due to increased temperature

• Biological activities increases with increase in temperature
pH • If pH < 7 , tuberculation and corrosion will be caused

• If pH > 7 , difficulty in chlorination, sediments deposits and physiological
effects on human will be taken place
Turbidity • Cause reduction in transparency of water
Dissolved • Warm water fish requires a minimum DO level of at least 5 mg/l

Oxygen • If DO level drops below the level then aquatic system is classified as
polluted
Biological • When the BOD value reached 5 mg/l the water is of doubtful purity
Oxygen
Demand

Parameter Effects
Flouride • Higher concentration of fluoride cause, respiratory diseases, dental and

skeletal fluorosis, gastro intestinal and dental problems.
Total • Settling down the suspended particles suffocate the organisms

Dissolved inhabiting the bottom of the aquatic habitats
Solids • Erosion of pumping equipments and power turbines
• Causes problems related to gasto intestinal and kidney in human
Metals • Mercury – Foetal disorders

• Arsenic – Lung cancer , kidney damage, mental disorder
• Cadmiun - Kidney damage, injury to CNS
• Copper – Hypertension
Hardness • Results in scaling and even busting of boilers and hot water pipes
through which it passes

 Used for water pollution control
 Water Quality Monitoring:

- Measurement
- Sampling
 Methods for sampling:
• Grab sampling: Shows only the prevailing condition at the time of

sampling and cannot represent average condition
• Composite sampling: Provide more meaningful data when the

compostion of the waste varies with either time or flow

Parameters Sample collection Size of sample Storage / Preservation
PH Grab sampling - plastic/ 50 ml On-site analysis

glass container
Conductivity Grab sampling - plastic/ 50 ml On-site analysis
glass container
Total suspended Grab sampling - plastic/ 50 ml Refrigeration - can be stored for 7
solids glass container days
Total dissolved Grab sampling - plastic/ 100 ml Refrigeration - can be stored for 7
solids glass container days
Oil & Grease Wide mouth glass 500 ml Add HCL to pH>2, refrigeration - can
container be stored for 28 days
BOD Grab sampling - plastic/ 500 ml Refrigeration -can be stored for 48
glass container hrs
COD Grab sampling - plastic/ 100 ml Add Sulphuric acid to pH<2,
glass container refrigeration - can be stored for 28
days.
Residual Grab sampling - plastic/ 50 ml On site analysis
chlorine glass container
Hardness Grab sampling - plastic/ 100 ml Add Nitric acid to pH<2, refrigeration
glass container -can be stored for 6 months
Chlorides Grab sampling - plastic/ 50 ml Not required , 28 days
glass container
Sulphates Grab sampling - plastic/ 100 ml Refrigeration, 28 days
glass container

Parameters Sample collection Size of Storage / Preservation
sample
Sodium , Plastic container 100 ml Not required , 6 months

Potassium
Nitrates Plastic container 100 ml Refrigeration , 48 hrs
Fluorides Plastic container only 100 ml Not required , 28 days
Alkalinity Plastic/ glass container 100 ml Refrigeration, 14 days
Ammonia plastic/ glass container 100 ml Add sulphuric acid to pH >2,

refrigeration can be stored for 28
days
Hexavalent Plastic / glass rinse with 100 ml Grab sample, refrigeration, 24 hrs
chromium 1+1 nitric acid
Heavy metals Plastic/ glass rinse with 100 ml Filter, Add nitric acid to pH>2;grab
(Mercury-Hg, 1+1 nitric acid sample, 6 months.
cadmium-Cd,
chromium-Cr,
Copper-Cu, Fe,
zinc, Pb etc.)

Parameters Method
pH pH meter
Colour Comparison with standard colour solution
Temperature Thermometer
Dissolved Oxygen , BOD DO analyzer, winkler-sodium azide modification
COD Open reflux
Conductivity Conductivity meter
Turbidity Turbidity meter
Chlorides Argentometric method
Fluorides Spands photometric method
Phosphates Molybdenum blue, Colourimetric method
Total kjeldahl nitrogen Kjeldahl distillation
Total Dissolved solids , Total Suspended Solids Gravimetric method
Total hardness EDTA Titrimetric method
Sulphates Gravimetric / turbidimetric
Arsenic Silver diethyl dithiocarbonate
Calcium, Magnesium , EDTA Titrimetric method
Sodium, Potassium Flame photometric method
Manganese, Boron Colourimetric method
Coliform organisms MPN test
Total Organic carbon Ultraviolet oxidation
Pesticides GLC
Acidity, Alkalinity Titrimetric method
Residual chlorine Iodometric

 Inland Surface Water IS : 3307
 Indian Standards / specifications for drinking water IS:10500-1991
 Indian Standards For Industrial and Sewage Effluents Discharge IS :

2490-1982
 World Health Organisation (WHO)
 United States Public Health Services (USPHS)

Characteristics Highest desirable level Maximum permissible level
Colour (hazen units) 5.0 25.0
Odour Non disagreeable Non disagreeable
Taste Non disagreeable Non disagreeable
Turbidity , Jtu 5.0 25.0
Dissolved solids , mg/l 500.0 1500.0
PH 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.2
Total hardness as CaCO3 , mg/l 300.0 600.0
Calcium (Ca), mg/l 75.0 200.0
Magnesium (as Mg), mg/l Not more than 50 mg/l if, there are 200 mg/l of Sulphate, if there is
Sulphate, magnesium up to 100 mg/l may be allowed at the rate of 1
mg/l of Mg for every 4 mg/l of decrease in Sulphate.
Copper (as Cu) , mg/l 0.05 1.5
Iron (as Fe) ,mg/l 0.3 1.0
Manganese (as Mn) , mg/l 0.1 1.5
Chlorides , mg/l 200.0 1000.0
Sulphate , mg/l 200.0 400.0

Characteristics Highest desirable level Maximum permissible level
Nitrates (as NO3) , mg/l 20.0 50.0
Fluoride, mg/l 1.0 1.5
Phenolic compounds , mg/l 0.001 0.002
Mercury (as Hg) , mg/l - 0.0001
Cadmium (as Cd) , mg/l - 0.01
Selenium (as Se) , mg/l - 0.01
Arsenic (as As), mg/l - 0.05
Cyanides (as Cn), mg/l - -
Lead (as Pb) , ,g/l - 0.10
Radioactive Materials - 3.0

1. Alpha emitters , pci/l 30.0
2. Beta emitters , pci/l

• Primary treatment
• Pretreatment
• Sedimentation
• Flotation
• Secondary treatment
• Activated Sludge process
• Trickling filters
• Sludge treatment and disposal
• Advanced treatment
• Removal of suspended solids
• Removal of Dissolved solids
• Ion exchange , RO , Electrolysis, Solvent Extraction

 Soil is a natural layer on the surface of the earth
 It is the environment for plant root system and soil organisms
 Provides water and mineral salts to plants
 Role of soil
• forms part of natural and artificial environment and by joining the

spheres of air and water it is one of the ecosystem constituents
along with the community of living organisms.
• It is merely a physical receptor of matter and energy flows reaching

Earth’s surface, transforming and partly storing them

• Fertility of soil is considered to be an important indicator to measure
soil pollution
• Unlike (polluted) water and air, dilution and purification of (polluted)

land is difficult and cannot reduce the danger of damage.
• Soil by its fertility – contributes not only to the existence of vegetation

and fauna living on it but also to the welfare of humanity
• Intensive cultivation of crops, mechanization and the application of

various chemicals, irrigation and drainage works reduce soil fertility.

• Agriculture: Accumulation of manures; Excessive input of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides; Plant remains, processing waste, animal waste
• Mining & Quarrying: Using explosives to blow mines; Using of

machineries which emit toxic bye-products and leaks to the ground
• Sewage sludge: improper sanitation system
• Dredged spoils: improper method of dredging at fertile land causes soil

infertility

• Household waste: Improper waste disposal system
• Demolition and construction: Non-biodegradable rubbles or debris
• Industrial: Disposal of flyash and other industrial solid waste

produced from industries
• Medical waste: Bio-medical waste; Waste like needles, bandages,

syringes, etc.
• E-waste: Waste due to disposal of used electronic items like

computers, mobile phones etc.

• Land degradation - decreased soil fertility and hence crop yield
• Increases soil erosion
• Loss in soil fertility
• If heavy metals are deposited in soil due to pollution from some

industries, the metals might get transferred to water and air and
damage them
• Also disturbs the bio-geo-chemical cycle and energy flow in the

ecosystem

• In scientific terms, noise (or sound) is a pressure oscillation in the
air or water or any medium which conducts and travels (radiates)
away from the source.
• Noise pollution has not been an entirely new phenomenon, but has
been a problem that has been growing steadily worse with time due
to increasing population, urbanization, industrialization and
technological changes.
• Noise pollution may occur – Indoor / Outdoor
• Unlike air and water pollution, Noise does not remain in environment
for a long time, as it has - short residence, and decay time

• Industrial sources
• Non-industrial sources
a. Loudspeakers
b. Automobiles
c. Trains
d. Aircrafts
e. Construction work
f. Projection of satellite in space
g. Radio, Microphones, tape recorders, music systems, etc.

• Source of noise pollution can be immediately removed or controlled
• Effects of noise pollution are not extremely fatal in comparison to air

pollution or water pollution
• It is not so serious kind to pollution as its effect is for short duration

and impact on human health is not fatal.
• It is local in nature of occurrence and its spread
• Does not contain harmful substances or toxic matter
• Noise pollution cannot be fatal, if not treated properly

• Physiological effects: Speeding up of pulse and respiratory rates, impair
hearing either permanently or temporary, can cause heart attacks in
individuals with existing cardiac injury, Continuous exposure to loud noise
could cause chronic effects as hypertension or ulcers and deafness
• Psychological effects: Annoyance, impair performance, causes tension

in muscles, nervous irritability and strain
• Behavioral effects: Irritation, headache
• Personological effects: Cause stable maladaptive reactions which

disturbs his personality makeup

• Research says – that access to noise levels in excess of 90 decibels
for continuous period may cause loss of hearing
• Single exposure to 150 decibels of noise – can cause permanent

injury to ear’s internal mechanism
• Constant exposure to 110 to 120 decibels can produce narrowing of

vision, vertigo and distruption of equilibrium in the unborn baby

On Non-living things
• Buildings – cracks develop due to sudden loud like
• Indirect impacts – affects value of property (e.g. airports)
On Environment
• Major impacts on animals and birds

• Measurement:
• Properties of sound:
– Intensity
– Frequency
• Unit of measurement of intensity is decibel (db)
• The human ear is known to be sensitive to sound waves in the

frequency range of 20 HZ to 20000 HZ
• Sound Level Meters used to measure the frequency of noise

• Up to 23 db : No disturbance
• 30-60 db : Stress, tension,illness,heart attack
• 60-90 db : Damage to health,high blood pressure,sleep interference
• 60-120 db : Damage to health and ear diseases
• > 120 db : Painful effects in long run

Area code Category of areas Limits
Day time Night time
(db) (db)
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55
C Residential area 55 45
D Silence zone 50 40
Daytime is reckoned in between 6 a.m & 9 p.m

• Nighttime is reckoned in between 9 p.m and 6 a.m
• Silence zone is defined as area upto 100 m around such premises as hospital, educational
institutes & courts
• Mixed categories of areas should be declared as one of the four above mentioned categories

 Control at receiver’s end
• People working in noisy environment, ear protection aids like ear plugs,
ear muffs, noise helmets, headphones etc must be provided
 Suppression of noise at source

• Proper lubrication and better maintenance of machines
• Designing, fabricating and using quieter machines to replace the noisy
ones
• Installing noise machines in sound proof chambers
• Using glass wool or mineral wool covered with a sheet of perforated
metal for the purpose of mechanical protection
• Covering noise producing machine parts with sound absorbing
materials to check noise production
• Using silencers to control noise from automobiles, ducts, exhausts etc

 Acoustic zoning
• Increased distance between source and receiver by zoning of noisy
industrial area, bus terminals , railway station, air ports etc away from the
residential area
• There should be silence zones near the residential area, hospitals,
education institutions
 Planting of trees
• Planting green trees and shrubs along roads, hospitals, educational
buildings
 Sound insulation and construction stages

• Acoustical tiles, perforated plywood etc can be fixed on walls, ceiling,
floors etc to reduce noise
 Legislative Measures
• Minimum use of loud speakers and amplifers
• Banning pressure horns in automobiles
• Framing a separate noise pollution act
• Noise Pollution (Control and Regulation) Rules, 1998 (Amended in 2000)

• Excess or obtrusive light created by humans.
• Light pollution (also known as photo-pollution, luminous pollution) refers to

light that people find annoying, wasteful or harmful.
• Light pollution is caused by excessive, misdirected outdoor lighting. Light

pollution threatens to destroy most casual star-gazing.
• It can be construed to have two main branches:

- Annoying light that intrudes on an otherwise natural or low light setting
- Excessive light, generally indoors, that leads to worker discomfort and
adverse health effects.

Light Trespass
• Occurs when unwanted light enters one's property
• A common light trespass problem occurs when a strong light enters the
window of one's home from outside, causing problems such as Sleep
deprivation
Over illumination
• Excessive use of light

Glare
• Glare is the result of excessive contrast between bright and dark areas in
the field of view
• Caused by high contrast between light and dark areas, glare can also
make it difficult for the human eye to adjust to the differences in brightness
Sky glow
• Sky glow refers to the "glow" effect that can be seen over populated areas
• It is the term used to describe the glow that emanates outwards and
upwards from cities, towns and villages from all types of lights combined,
e.g., street lights, security lights, advertising, sports facilities, etc.

Source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/images/content/94112main_flat_earth_nightm.jpg

Light Pollution due to lighting
of a Stadium
Light Pollution in London
Light Pollution in Edinburgh

• Building exterior and interior lighting
• Advertising
• Commercial properties
• Offices
• Factories
• Street lights
• Sporting venues

• Effects on human health: increased headache, incidence, worker fatigue,
stress, increase in anxiety
• Wastage of energy
• Disruption of ecosystems: Migrating birds can be disoriented by lights on

tall structures (FLAP – Fatal Light Awareness Programme),
• Safety related issues
• Obstructs the view of stars at nights (Dark Sky Movement,

http://www.britastro.org – The Campaign for Dark Skies)
• Interferes with astronomical observations

 Case study: Jetpur, Gujarat
Example highlights that how serious industrial pollution can be even in
small towns
Jetpur - small town (30000 population, 1991 census) Many vectors live,
breed or feed within or around houses and settlements
Very successful for dyeing and printing saris, with approximately 1200 units
and another 400-500 ancillary industries
These industries are highly polluting industries, but there was negligible
pollution control by the people or by the authority
Resulted in – local river (Bhadar) and ground water are heavily polluted
The residents of the town of Dhoraji (16km downstream) of Jetpur have

been complaining about the pollution of their river by the industries for
nearly 30 years.

 Case study: Bamenda by Acho-Chi, Cameroon
Range of environmental problems are evident in this rapidly growing city
Population expanded more than 10-fold between 1965 and 1993 to reach
270,000
Human settlement have expanded up on hill slopes and wetlands as the

land is very cheap (urban district land can be 300 to 400 times more
costly)
However it is difficult and expensive to build stable safe home at these

locations
Around 20% of Bamenda’s population live in flood plains and 7% in informal

settlements on steep slopes
Inadequate water supply, sanitation, schools, health facilities, roads and

drainage

 Case study: Bamenda by Acho-Chi, Cameroon
Land clearance for settlement and for quarrying and sand mining
alongwith other landuse changes caused by urban expansion have
created serious problems of soil erosion (soil that is washed down the
hills blocking drainage channels and changing peak water flow).
This has increased problems related to floods
Unregulated urbanization is the cause of these situation
Also due to low capacity and skills of local authority and economic crisis,
the solution to these problems seems difficult

Impacts of cities at various scales

 Cities transform environments and landscapes not only within the city limits
/ built-up areas but also for considerable distance around them
 Leads to environmental impacts in the region around the city i.e. rural area
around the city
 The inhabitants, environment and natural resource base of this wider

region are usually affected by:
 Expansion - bring transformations like resurfacing of land surfaces;
filling up of valleys and swamps; extraction of clay, sand, gravel etc.;
tapping of water sources like ground water, rivers, lakes etc.
 Demand - products of forests, rangelands, farmlands, watersheds or
aquatic ecosystems that are outside its boundaries
 Diseases generated within city – transferred to the region around it
which have environmental impacts

 Cities regional impacts and urban-rural interactions
 Cities and the global commons

Physical expansion of city
 Absence of effective landuse plan or other development control
mechanisms, cities expand haphazardly (based on where households,
residential area, industries, enterprises, public sector – legally or illegally
locate)
 Hence this immediate hinterland around the city doesnot have any
particular characteristics, i.e. not urban, not rural or sub-urban
 In a ‘metropolitan city’, much of these surrounding hinterland may fall within

metropolitan boundary.

 Change in landuse – Agriculture area surrounding the city may disappear
or decline as the land is generally bought by people or companies –
‘speculative investment’. There is a lack of effective control over such
changes in landuse or on the profits that can be made.
 Patchwork of different development – due to unplanned and uncontrolled

city expansion i.e. business or high density residential development,
interspersed with land that remains undeveloped. Such development occur
in adhoc manner (legally or illegally) due to personal interest of some
specific group of people.
 Absence of city-wide plan – responsibility of an individual ULB in terms of

landuse planning and development control regulations. This is an individual
effort and there is no co-ordination between them. This results in
unbalanced development. For e.g. some city may relax certain controls to
attract more investments / industries. The question about what happens to
the joint resources between the ULBs still remain.
 Social and environmental consequences – soil erosion, alteration in
contours causing flooding, segregation of low income groups, shortage of
infrastructure services, etc.
 Loss of natural resources – sites of ecological value or importance like

forest, waterbodies, fertile land etc.
 Disruption in agricultural production and livelihood of those dependent on

this area – due to urban land market. Conflicts in landuse priorities between
urban-based demand and ecological services. These conflicts generally
involve social conflicts too.
 Destruction of natural landscapes

Inputs into urban areas – the demand of resources
 Urban-based demand for natural resources – difficult to make a ‘balance
sheet’ regarding the environmental (& other) costs and benefits.
 Environmental costs are of major concern in discussion of these topic
 Demand for rural resources (city based enterprises and domestic needs) –
limit the availability for rural households
 Individual and community based rural needs are affected e.g. wood,
charcoal, common land used for grazing of animals, etc.
 Loss of natural resources in rural areas – deforestation, depletion of

freshwater resources (quality and quantity), etc.

Rural-urban interactions
 Rural-urban linkage can be positive – environmental and developmental
terms
 Demand for rural produce from city based enterprises and households can
support properous farms and rural settlements. Hence environmental
capital is not depleted.
 Urban income may be a major source of income in ‘Rural’ households.
 Govt. policies to support rural livelihoods and good environmental

management can influence the nature and scale of migration into urban
areas.
 This doesnot mean that the process of urban expansion should be ‘halted’.
More people moving to urban areas, means requirement of more land
(always a constraint in urban areas). Lower income groups suffer due to
overcrowding situations, un-serviced land, illegal developments etc.

City outputs – solid, liquid and gaseous wastes
 Waste discharge (solid, liquid or gaseous) generated in cities tend to have
significant impacts in the surrounding region.
Cities’ ecological impacts

 Extent of environmental changes / damage caused due to a urban area
may depend upon:
urban centres’ size and wealth (resource demand and waste generation)
its production base
resource endowments of the region around it
 Also influenced by quality of environmental management both within urban
centre and in region around it.

Most immediate effects of climate change would be:
 Higher global mean temperature
 Sea level rise
 Changes in weather patterns
 Changes in river flow
 Changes in evaporation rates
 Changes in structure of ecosystem
 Changes in frequency and severity of extreme weather conditions such as

storms

Environmental cost bearers
or
Vulnerable groups

 Generally, in all cities the neighbouhoods with highest risks would be the
neighbouhoods with a predominance of low-income groups. Poor quality of
houses, overcrowding and access to basic facilities are the common
problems
 Indoor air quality and income – use of polluting fuels
 Transmission of disease – due to overcrowding and bad living conditions
 Least provision of open spaces, gardens, playgrounds.
 Tendency for polluting industries, waste dumps and waste management
facilities to concentrate in low-income neighbourhoods
 Low-income households - exposure to risk is much higher

Vulnerability to disaster:
 Living or working in places at high risk from disasters
 Being more affected by the lack of rapid response to the disaster
 Being less able to cope with the consequences
Infants and children
Women:
 Because of gender relations

Thank You !!

LECT 3 - Urban Env - Aug 12, 2008

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Urban Environmental Problems

Prof. Rutool Sharma

Faculty of Planning & Public Policy

 Environment is a vast, diverse and complex subject

 Urban Environment has several associated subjects :

 There are several ways to explain the subject

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Section 1: Urban Environment - Introduction

Discussion - Urban Environment

 Section 2: Quality of Urban Environment

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

• Roads, Traffic, Street Lights

• Trees, Lakes, Gardens, Ponds

• Solid waste, Slums

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Stress on natural resources due to high consumption

 The extent of urban environmental impact increases not only as

 Overuse, degradation and depletion of natural resources are common

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

 Poor living conditions:

 Urban poor - most vulnerable group (low affordability)

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

Living in urban areas become:

1. Stress on natural Unhealthy

 Development of urban areas should be such that it does not

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

Environmental goals for cities:

 Healthy living & working environment

 Adequate provision of basic services like water supply, sewerage

 An ecologically sustainable relationship between the demands of

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

For achieving these goals:

City’s economy City’s built-form

Physical environment Biological environment

 Reducing environmental hazards

 Checking depletion of environmental capital or resources

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

 In developing countries / low income countries, urban expansion has

Population faces high risk of natural or human-induced hazards

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

• It may affect land which is regarded as an environmental asset, such as

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

• We forget that for urbanisation, Man is dependent on Environment.

• Human activities at various times has involved a good deal of irrational

• With increasing intensity of urbanisation, human society has adapted environing

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

Aerial Image source: B.B.C and UNEP

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

Aerial Image source: B.B.C and UNEP

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

Real Estate Development Expanding cities

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

Natural resource degradation Pollution

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma

CEPT University, Ahmedabad Prof. Rutool Sharma