2008 January 1

4: Neutron-Induced Fission
B. Rouben
McMaster University
Course EP 4P03/6P03
2008 Jan-Apr
2008 January 2
Neutron Reactions with Matter
Scattering: the neutron
bounces off, with or without
the same energy (elastic or
inelastic scattering)
Activation: the neutron is
captured, & the resulting
nuclide is radioactive, e.g.

16
O(n,p)
16
N

10
B(n,o)
7
Li
Radiative Capture: the
neutron is captured and a
gamma ray is emitted
from stainless steel

40
Ar(n,)
41
Ar
Fission (follows absorption)


electron
neutron
proton
Incident neutron, E
1

Scattered neutron, E
2

a E
A

E
1
= E

+ E
2

Inelastic Scattering:

electron
neutron
proton
Elastic Scattering:
Incident neutron, E
1

Scattered neutron, E
2

E
1
= E
A
+ E
2


electron
neutron
proton
Neutron Absorption:
Incident thermal neutron, E
Gamma Photon, E
Gamma Photon, E
E

~ 7 MeV
2008 January 3
A neutron splits a
uranium nucleus,
releasing energy (quickly
turned to heat) and more
neutrons, which can
repeat the process.
The energy appears
mostly in the kinetic
energy of the fission
products and in the beta
and gamma radiation.
(neutron-induced)
2008 January 4
Outcome of Neutron-Induced Fission Reaction
Energy is released (a small part of the nuclear mass is
turned into energy).
One neutron enters the reaction, 2 or 3 (on the average)
emerge, and can induce more fissions.
The process has the potential of being a chain reaction;
this can be self-perpetuating (critical) under certain
conditions.
By judicious design, research and power reactors can be
designed for criticality; controllability is also important.
The energy release is open to control by controlling the
number of fissions.
This is the operating principle of fission reactors.
2008 January 5
Fission Process
The fission process occurs when the nucleus
which absorbs the neutron is excited into an
elongated (barbell) shape, with roughly half
the nucleons in each part.
This excitation works against the strong force
between the nucleons, which tends to bring the
nucleus back to a spherical shape there is a
fission barrier
If the energy of excitation is larger than the
fission barrier, the two parts of the barbell have
the potential to completely separate: binary
fission!
2008 January 6
Fissionable and Fissile Nuclides
Only a few nuclides can fission.
A nuclide which can be induced to fission by an
incoming neutron of any energy is called fissile. There
is only one naturally occurring fissile nuclide:
235
U.
Other fissile nuclides:
233
U, isotopes
239
Pu and
241
Pu of
plutonium; none of these is present in nature to any
appreciable extent.
Fissionable nuclides: can be induced to fission, but only
by neutrons of energy higher than a certain threshold.
e.g.
238
U and
240
Pu.
2008 January 7
Fissile Nuclides: Odd-A
Notice, from the previous slide, that fissile nuclides generally have
an odd value of A. This is not a coincidence.
The binding energy is greater when there are pairs of nucleons.
When a neutron is absorbed in an odd-A (fissile) nucleus, its drop
in energy is relatively large (= to the binding energy of the last
nucleons in the even-A nucleus).
The energy released by this drop of the neutrons energy (even if
the neutron brought no kinetic energy) is now available to change
the configuration of the nucleus the nucleus can deform by
stretching and can surmount the fission barrier.
If the neutron is absorbed in an even-A (fissionable) nucleus, its
binding energy in the odd-A nucleus is smaller, and is not sufficient
for the nucleus to surmount the fission barrier. To induce fission,
the neutron needs to bring in some minimum (threshold) kinetic
energy.
2008 January 8
Energy from Fission
Energy released per fission ~ 200 MeV [~ 3.2*10
-11
J].
This is hundreds of thousands, or millions, of times
greater than energy produced by combustion, but still
only ~0.09% of mass energy of uranium nucleus!
The energy released appears mostly (85%) as kinetic
energy of the fission fragments, and in small part (15%)
as the kinetic energy of the neutrons and other particles.
The energy is quickly reduced to heat (random kinetic
energy) as the fission fragments are stopped by the
surrounding atoms.
The heat is used to make steam by boiling water,
The steams turns a turbine and generates electricity.
2008 January 9
Schematic of a CANDU Nuclear Power Plant

2008 January 10
Power from Fission
Total power (energy per unit time) generated in a
nuclear reactor depends on the number of fissions per
second.
Quantities of interest:
Fission power (total power generated in fission)
Thermal power (the power (heat) removed by the
coolant)
Electric power (the power changed to electrical
form)
In the CANDU 6:
Fission power = 2156 MW
f
Thermal Power = 2061 MW
th
Gross Electric Power ~ 680-730 MW
e

2008 January 11
Exercises
Given that one fission releases 200 MeV, how
many fissions occur per second in a CANDU 6 at
full power?
How many fissions occur in 1 year at full power?
Compare this to the number of uranium nuclei in
the reactor.
Calculation of Reaction Rates
How do we calculate
the reaction rates of
neutrons (in particular,
the fission rate)?
For this we need the
concept of cross
section, already
introduced earlier, and
the concept of neutron
flux (see at right).
Neutron Flux
Imagine all neutrons in unit volume at a given instant.
Let the neutron population density be n neutrons/cm
3
.
Sum all the distances (path lengths) which would be
traversed by these neutrons per unit time. This is defined
as the total neutron flux, denoted |.
In the (hypothetical) case in which all neutrons are
travelling at the same speed v, the flux is the product of
the density n of the neutron population and the speed v:
|(v) = nv
[For a distribution of neutron speeds, integrate over v]
| has units of (neutrons.cm
-3
*cm.s
-1
) = (neutrons.cm
-2
.s
-1
)
Calculating Reaction Rates
Recall that the macroscopic cross section is the
probability of reaction per distance travelled.
Putting together the concepts of neutron flux
and cross section, one can calculate reaction rates.
The reaction rate for a given reaction type (e.g.,
fission) for neutrons of speed v is the product of
the path length of neutrons of speed v [i.e., the flux
|(v)] by the macroscopic cross section:
Rate of reactions of type i (per unit volume)
for neutrons of speed v = E
i
(v)|(v)
If there is a distribution of neutron speeds,
reaction rate must be integrated over speed v.
Calculating Reaction Rates
To calculate the reaction rates, we need therefore the macroscopic
cross section and the neutron flux.
These are calculated with the help of computer programs:
The cross sections are calculated from international databases
of microscopic cross sections
The neutron flux distribution in space (the flux shape) is
calculated with specialized computer programs, which solve
equations describing the transport or diffusion of neutrons
[The diffusion equation is an approximation to the more
accurate transport equation.]
The product of these two quantities (as per previous slide) gives
the distribution of reaction rates, but the absolute value of the
neutron flux is tied to the total reactor power.
Concept of Irradiation
The irradiation e (or exposure, or fluence) of the reactor
fuel or other material is a measure of the time spent by the
material in a given neutron flux |. Mathematically, it is
defined as the product of flux by time:
e = |.t
| has units of neutrons.cm
-2
.s
-1
Therefore the units of irradiation e are neutrons/cm
2
.
In these units, e has very small values. It is more
convenient therefore to use the nuclear unit of area, the
barn (b) = 10
-24
cm
2
, or even the kb = 1,000 b.
e then has units of neutrons per kilobarn [n/kb].
Concept of Fuel Burnup
Fuel burnup is defined as the (cumulative) quantity of
fission energy produced per mass of uranium during its
residence time in the reactor.
Fuel burnup starts at 0 for fuel which has just entered the
reactor, and builds up as the fuel produces energy.
The exit (or discharge) burnup is the burnup of the fuel as
it exits the reactor.
The two most commonly used units for fuel burnup are
Megawatt-hours per kilogram of uranium, i.e.,
MW.h/kg(U), and Megawatt-days per Megagram (or
Tonne) of uranium, i.e., MW.d/Mg(U).
1 MW.h/kg(U) = 1,000/24 MW.d/Mg(U) = 41.67 MW.d/Mg(U)
Fuel Burnup
The exit fuel burnup is an important economic quantity: it
is essentially the inverse of fuel consumption [units, e.g.,
Mg(U)/GW(e).a].
For a given fissile content (fuel enrichment), a high
burnup signifies low fuel consumption, and therefore a
small refuelling-cost component.
Note, however: the true measure of a reactors efficiency
is not fuel burnup, but uranium utilization, the amount of
uranium from the ground needed to produce a certain
amount of energy.
Typical fuel burnup attained in CANDU 6 = 7,500
MW.d/Mg(U), or 175-180 MW.h/kg(U).
However, this can vary, because burnup depends on
operational parameters, mostly the moderator purity.
Fuel Requirements
Energy in fission immense:
1 kg (U) in CANDU = ~180 MW.h(th)
= 60 MW.h(e).
Typical 4-person households electricity use
= 1,000 kW.h/month = 12 MW.h/year
Then a mere 200 g (< 0.5 lb) (U) [6 to 8 pellets]
serves 1 household for an entire year. [Cf: If from
fossil, ~ 30,000 times as large, ~ 6,000 kg coal.]
Cost of nuclear electricity insensitive to
fluctuations in price of U.
Reactor Multiplication Constant
Several processes compete for neutrons in a nuclear
reactor:
productive absorptions, which end in fission
non-productive absorptions (in fuel or in
structural material), which do not end in fission
leakage out of the reactor
Self-sustainability of chain reaction depends on
relative rates of production and loss of neutrons.
Measured by the effective reactor multiplication
constant:

) ( leakage s absorption loss neutron of Rate
production neutron of Rate
k
eff
+
=
Reactor Multiplication Constant
Three possibilities for k
eff
:
k
eff
< 1: Fewer neutrons being produced than lost.
Chain reaction not self-sustaining, reactor
eventually shuts down. Reactor is subcritical.
k
eff
= 1: Neutrons produced at same rate as lost.
Chain reaction exactly self-sustaining, reactor
in steady state. Reactor is critical.
k
eff
> 1: More neutrons being produced than lost.
Chain reaction more than self-sustaining,
reactor power increases. Reactor is supercritical.
Critical Mass
Because leakage of neutrons out of reactor
increases as size of reactor decreases, reactor
must have a minimum size for criticality.
Below minimum size (critical mass), leakage is
too high and k
eff
cannot possibly be equal to 1.
Critical mass depends on:
shape of the reactor
composition of the fuel
other materials in the reactor.
Shape with lowest relative leakage, i.e. for which
critical mass is least, is shape with smallest
surface-to-volume ratio: a sphere.
Reactivity
Reactivity () is a quantity closely related to
reactor multiplication constant. It is defined as
= 1-1/ k
eff

= (Neutron production-loss)/Production
= Net relative neutron production
Central value is 0:
< 0 : reactor subcritical
= 0 : reactor critical
> 0 : reactor supercritical
Units of Reactivity
Reactivity measured in milli-k (mk).
1 mk = one part in one thousand
= 0.001
= 1 mk means
neutron production > loss by 1 part in 1000

1 mk may seem small, but one must consider the time
scale on which the chain reaction operates.
Control of Chain Reaction
To operate reactor:
Most of the time we want k
eff
= 1 to keep power
steady.
To reduce power, or shut the reactor down, we
need ways to make k
eff
< 1:
done by inserting neutron absorbers, e.g. water,
cadmium, boron, gadolinium.
To increase power, we need to make k
eff
slightly >
1 for a short time:
usually done by removing a bit of absorption.
Control of Chain Reaction
In a reactor, we dont want to make k
eff
much greater than
1, or > 1 for long time, or power could increase to high
values, potentially with undesirable consequences, e.g.
melting of the fuel.
Even when we want to keep k
eff
= 1, we need reactivity
devices to counteract perturbations to the chain reaction.
The movement of reactivity devices allows absorption to
be added or removed in order to manipulate k
eff
.
Every nuclear reactor contains regulating and shutdown
systems to do the job of keeping k
eff
steady or increasing
or decreasing it, as desired.
2008 January 27
Products of Fission
The fission products (fission fragments) are nuclides of
roughly half the mass of uranium.
They are not always the same in every fission. There are
a great number of different fission products, each
produced in a certain percentage of the fissions (their
fission yield).
Most fission-product nuclides are neutron rich; they
disintegrate typically by |- or - decay, and are therefore
radioactive, with various half-lives.
2008 January 28
Decay Heat
Many fission products are still decaying long after the originating
fission reaction.
Energy (heat) from this nuclear decay is actually produced in the
reactor for many hours, days, even months after the chain reaction
is stopped. This decay heat is not negligible.
When the reactor is in steady operation, decay heat represents
about 7% of the total heat generated.
Even after reactor shutdown, decay heat must be dissipated
safely, otherwise the fuel and reactor core can seriously overheat.
Next Figure shows the variation of decay heat with time.
Also, the used fuel which is removed from the reactor must be
safely stored, to cool it and to contain its radioactivity.
2008 January 29
Decay Power vs. Time
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

S
h
u
t
d
o
w
n

t
o

O
p
e
r
a
t
i
n
g

P
o
w
e
r

(
P
/
P
o
)
1.0 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
Time After Shutdown (s)
0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01





0.03



0.02



0.01







Decay Heat
ORIGEN includes actinides, and
fission products from U-238, U-235,
Pu-239, Pu-241
Scale on left
Scale on right
2008 January 30
Formation of Transuranics (Actinides)
Transuranics are produced in the reactor by absorption of
neutrons by
238
U: plutonium, americium, curium, etc.
e.g., production of
239
Pu:

238
U +n
239
U
239
Np + |
239
Pu + 2 |

238
U is said to be fertile because it yields fissile
239
Pu

239
Pu can participate in fissions; it can also continue to
absorb neutrons to yield
240
Pu and
241
Pu (latter is fissile)
Half the energy eventually produced in CANDU is from
plutonium created in situ!
Actinides tend to have long half-lives, e.g. for
239
Pu
24,000 y.
CANDU
6
Reactor
(700-
MWe
Class)
2008 January 32
Calandria, Showing Fuel Channels
Long-Term Reactivity Control
For long-term maintenance of reactivity:
Refuelling is required because reactivity eventually
decreases as fuel is irradiated: fission products
accumulate and total fissile content decreases.

In CANDU 6, average refuelling rate ~ 2 channels
per Full-Power Day (FPD), using the 8-bundle-shift
refuelling scheme (8 new bundles pushed in channel,
8 irradiated bundles pushed out).
4-bundle-shift and 10-bundle-shift refuelling schemes
have also been used in other CANDUs.
Selection of channels is the job of the station
physicist.
2008 January 34
Fuelling machines at both ends of the reactor
remove spent fuel, insert new fuel.
Reactor Regulating System
The reactivity devices used for control
purposes by the Reactor Regulating System
(RRS) in the standard CANDU-6 design
are the following:
14 liquid-zone-control compartments (H
2
O
filled)
21 adjuster rods
4 mechanical control absorbers
moderator poison.

Special Safety Systems
There are in addition two spatially, logically, and
functionally separate special shutdown systems (SDS):
SDS-1, consisting of 28 cadmium shutoff rods which
fall into the core from above
SDS-2, consisting of high-pressure poison injection into
the moderator through 6 horizontally oriented nozzles.
Each shutdown system can insert > 50 mk of negative
reactivity in approximately 1 s.
Next Figure summarizes the reactivity worths and
reactivity-insertion rates of the various CANDU-6
reactivity devices.
REACTIVITY WORTHS OF CANDU REACTIVITY DEVICES


Function


Device


Total Reactivity
Worth (mk)

Maximum
Reactivity
Rate (mk/s)

Control 14 Zone
Controllers

7

0.14

Control

21 Adjusters

15

0.10

Control

4 Mechanical
Control Absorbers

10

0.075(driving)
- 3.5 (dropping)

Control
Moderator Poison



-0.01
(extracting)
Safety

28 Shutoff Units

-80

-50

Safety 6 Poison-
Injection Nozzles

>-300

-50

CANDU Reactivity Devices
All reactivity devices are located or introduced into guide
tubes permanently positioned in the low-pressure
moderator environment.
These guide tubes are located interstitially between rows
of calandria tubes (see next Figure).
Maximum positive reactivity insertion rate achievable by
driving all control devices together is about 0.35 mk/s,
well within the design capability of the shutdown
systems.
Liquid Zone Controllers
For fine control of reactivity:
14 zone-control compartments, containing variable
amounts of light water (H
2
O used as absorber!)
The water fills are manipulated:
all in same direction,
to keep reactor critical for steady operation, or
to provide small positive or negative reactivity to
increase or decrease power in a controlled manner
differentially, to shape 3-d power distribution towards
desired reference shape
Liquid Zone-Control Units
Liquid Zone-Control Compartments
Mechanical Control Absorbers
For fast power reduction:
4 mechanical absorbers (MCA), tubes of cadmium
sandwiched in stainless steel physically same as
shutoff rods.
The MCAs are normally parked fully outside the core
under steady-state reactor operation.
They are moved into the core only for rapid reduction of
reactor power, at a rate or over a range that cannot be
accomplished by filling the liquid zone-control system
at the maximum possible rate.
Can be driven in pairs, or all four dropped in by gravity
following release of an electromagnetic clutch.
X = Mechanical Control Absorbers
Adjuster Rods
When refuelling unavailable (fuelling machine down)
for long period, or for xenon override:
21 adjuster rods, made of stainless steel or cobalt (to
produce
60
Co for medical applications).
Adjusters are normally in-core, and are driven out
(vertically) when extra positive reactivity is required.
The reactivity worth of the complete system is about
15 mk.
Maximum rate of change of reactivity for 1 bank of
adjusters is < 0.1 mk per second.
The adjusters also help to flatten the power distribution,
so that more total power can be produced without
exceeding channel and bundle power limits.
Top View Showing Adjuster Positions
Face View Showing Adjuster Positions
Moderator Poison
Moderator poison is used to compensate for
excess reactivity:
in the initial core, when all fuel in the core is
fresh, and
during and following reactor shutdown, when
the
135
Xe concentration has decayed below
normal levels.
Boron is used in the initial core, and gadolinium
is used following reactor shutdown. Advantage
of gadolinium is that burnout rate compensates
for xenon growth.
2008 January 48
CANDU Special Shutdown Systems
Two independent,
fully capable
shutdown systems:
SDS-1 (rods enter
core from top)
SDS-2 (injection of
neutron poison
from side.
SDS-1
SDS-1: 28 shutoff rods, tubes consisting of cadmium
sheet sandwiched between two concentric steel
cylinders.
The SORs are inserted vertically into perforated
circular guide tubes which are permanently fixed in the
core.
See locations in next Figure.
The diameter of the SORs is about 113 mm.
The outermost four SORs are ~4.4 m long, the rest
~5.4 m long.
2008 January 50

Top View
Showing
Shutoff-Rod
Positions
(SA 1 28)
SDS-2
SDS-2: high-pressure injection of solution of
gadolinium into the moderator in the calandria.
Gadolinium solution normally held at high pressure in
vessels outside of the calandria. Concentration is
~8000 g of gadolinium per Mg of heavy water.
Injection accomplished by opening high-speed valves
which are normally closed.
When the valves open, the poison is injected into the
moderator through 6 horizontally oriented nozzles that
span the core (see next Figure).
Nozzles inject poison in four different directions in the
form of a large number of individual jets.
Poison disperses rapidly throughout large fraction of
core.
2008 January 52

Positions of Liquid-Poison-Injection Nozzles
2008 January 53



END