ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS

Architectural acoustics is the science of controlling sound within buildings. The first application of architectural acoustics was in the design of opera houses and then concert halls.
Architectural acoustics includes room acoustics, the design of recording and broadcast studios, home theaters, and listening rooms for media playback.

BASIC ACOUSTICAL CONCEPT

Audible range: The normal ear in young adults detects sound having frequencies in the region 20Hz to 20kHz, although it is possible for some people to detect frequencies outside these limits. The musical scale is logarithmic and that the highest note on a piano is about 4kHz. The lowest note(27.5Hz) comes close to the lower limit of hearing.

Acoustic shadow: Screening or barriers (of walls, earth mounds, vegetation, etc.) can create an Acoustical Shadow if the sound is of high frequency. Sound shadow: A phenomenon caused by the ABSORPTION or OBSTRUCTION of a SOUND WAVE by an object in its path. The effect produced is perceived as a reduction in LOUDNESS depending on the observers position with respect to the sound source and obstructing object and is greatest when the three are aligned.

SOUND PROPAGATION
Sound propagates through air as a longitudinal wave. The speed of sound is determined by the properties of the air, and not by the frequency or amplitude of the sound. Sound waves, as well as most other types of waves, can be described in terms of the following basic wave phenomena.

SOUND PROPAGATION

BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND
Boundary Behavior: As a sound wave travels through a medium, it will often reach the end of the medium and encounter an obstacle or perhaps another medium through which it could travel. When one medium ends, another medium begins; the interface of the two media is referred to as the boundary and the behaviour of a wave at that boundary is described as its boundary behaviour. There are essentially four possible behaviours which a wave could exhibit at a boundary: Reflection (the bouncing off of the boundary), Diffraction (the bending around the obstacle without crossing over the boundary), Transmission (the crossing of the boundary into the new material or obstacle), and Refraction (occurs along with transmission and is characterized by the subsequent change in speed and direction).

MECHANICS OF SOUND TRANSMISSION

What is sound and what is a sound wave? Sound is the movement of air particles created by a vibrating source. Air particles are in constant random motion, exerting very small pressure variations around the steady-state atmospheric pressure. Each particle is subject to both an inertial force (due to its mass and acceleration) and a force which tends to restore the particle to its resting position (due to the elasticity of the medium). When an object - a sound source - is set into vibration, each air particle moves to and fro about its average position along an axis parallel to the direction in which the wave propagates. Air particles themselves do no move very far, they simply transfer pressure changes by what is referred to as sound propagation. This constitutes what we call a 'sound wave' which moves away from the sound source at a velocity determined by the medium. The velocity of propagation of a sound wave in air is about 344 meters per second, while in water it is 1437 m/s.

Sound waves move out spherically from a point source of sound, and as they do so they become less intense. Sound pressure is inversely proportional to distance from the source as long as the sound does not encounter obstacles, like the head and external ears for example. Obstacles, which create a change in the medium, impede or resist the propagation of sound. When a sound waved encounters an obstacle or change in medium, a portion of the sound wave is reflected from the surface. That portion of a sound wave not reflected from an obstacle is absorbed and continues to be propagated through the new medium. Reflectance of a sound is at the heart of our understanding of the action of the middle ear, whose purpose is to overcome the impedance mismatch at the interface of air and fluid of the inner ear. Reflected sound may encounter the original sound wave and, depending on the relative timing of the two, they may either reinforce or cancel one another. Sound waves may also be diffracted, which means that, depending on the frequency of the sound, they are able to wrap around small or medium-size objects. Reflectance and diffraction are two principle ways that sound waves are altered by the head.

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVE

The amount of energy which becomes reflected is dependent upon the dissimilarity of the two medium. The more similar that the two medium on each side of the boundary are, the less reflection which occurs and the more transmission which occurs. Conversely, the less similar that the two medium on each side of the boundary are, the more reflection which occurs and the less transmission which occurs. So if a heavy rope is attached to a light rope (two very dissimilar medium), little transmission and mostly reflection occurs. And if a heavy rope is attached to another heavy rope (two very similar medium), little reflection and mostly transmission occurs

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVE

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVE

Reflection of sound waves off of surfaces can lead to one of two phenomenon - an echo or a reverberation. But reflection of sound waves in auditoriums and concert halls do not always lead to displeasing results, especially if the reflections are designed right. Smooth walls have a tendency to direct sound waves in a specific direction. Rough walls tend to diffuse sound, reflecting it in a variety of directions. This allows a spectator to perceive sounds from every part of the room, making it seem lively and full. For this reason, auditorium and concert hall designers prefer construction materials which are rough rather than smooth.

REFLECTION OF SOUND WAVE

DIFFRACTION OF SOUND WAVES

Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around a barrier in their path. The amount of diffraction (the sharpness of the bending) increases with increasing wavelength and decreases with decreasing wavelength. Diffraction of sound waves is commonly observed; we notice sound diffracting around corners or through door openings, allowing us to hear others who are speaking to us from adjacent rooms.

REFRACTION OF SOUND WAVES

Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another. Refraction, or bending of the path of the waves, is accompanied by a change in speed and wavelength of the waves. So if the medium (and its properties) are changed, the speed of the waves are changed. Thus, waves passing from one medium to another will undergo refraction. Refraction of sound waves is most evident in situations in which the sound wave passes through a medium with gradually varying properties.

Diffraction is the change in the direction of the propagation of sound waves passing the edge of the obstacle as illustrated in the following figure:

Diffraction phenomenon depends significantly on the ratio of the wavelength of the sound to the size of the obstacle. The longer the wavelength the stronger the sound diffraction. Diffraction effect happens to the sound transmitted through openings as well.

PROPOGATION OF SOUND WAVES

SOUND DIFFUSION: Ideally a diffuse sound field is one in which the sound level is of similar quality everywhere. It is one of the major characteristic of many acoustically designed spaces for hearing. The comparative distribution of SOUND PRESSURE variations throughout a given space or the process by which a SOUND WAVE is distributed in the space. If sound pressure is uniformly distributed throughout the space, the sound is said to be well diffused. SOUND DIFFUSION FIELD: Repeated REFLECTIONs and DIFFRACTIONs of sound within a space result in good DIFFUSION and a uniform distribution of sound energy. A diffuse sound field is typically created in gymnasia, swimming pools and interior spaces with marble, concrete or glass walls. But it also can occur outdoors with sounds coming from many directions, such as in urban streets lined with high-rise buildings.

SURFACE EFFECTS
1. GROUND ABSORPTION: If sound is propagating over ground, ATTENTUATION will occur due to acoustics energy losses on reflection. These losses will depend on the surface. Smooth, hard surfaces will produce little ABSORPTION whereas thick grass may result in sound levels being reduced by up to about 10dB per 100meters at 2000Hz. High frequencies are generally attenuation more than low frequencies. ATTENUATION DUE TO BARRIERS AND TREES: A band of trees several hundreds of feet deep is required in order to achieve significant attenuation. Significant attenuation can be achieved by the use of solid barriers. A barriers should be at least high enough to obscure the line of sight between the noise source and receiver. A barrier is most effective for high frequencies since low frequencies are diffracted around the edge of a barrier more easily. The maximum performance of a barrier is limited to about 40dB, due to scattering by the atmosphere. A barrier is most effective when placed either very close to the source or to the receiver.

2.

BUILDINGS INTERNAL ACOUSTICS

Positioning or orienting the major openings away from the noise source. Buildings can be planned so as to accommodate screens (such as noise breaking projections, wing walls, etc) for noise protection.

MAJOR SOURCES OF ABSORPTION/REFLECTION IN A ROOM ARE:

CEILING: Major sound surface in many rooms. As room size increases so the ceiling increases in importance. However, ceiling tiles do not provide a uniform surface e.g. joints between tiles and also there are light fittings either recessed or suspended. Parabolic, deep cell diffusers are the best for sound absorption. Sometimes suspended ceiling baffles in a check board pattern are used. WALLS: These are usually the next most important surface. Their importance increases as room size decreases. Typically, walls have very poor sound absorbing qualities and this is often made worse by putting sound reflectors against the walls e.g. filing cabinets. Carpeting the walls will increase sound absorption.

FLOOR: Carpeting the floor will increase the NRC, but only up to about 0.3. Moving to thicker carpeting is often not a cost-effective solution because much of the floor area is covered by furniture with a worse NRC. Carpeting will reduce impact noise.
FURNITURE: Most furniture is designed to be functional or aesthetically or aesthetic pleasing rather than to be a good sound absorber. In many types of offices, screening has been purchased in an effort to improve visual and acoustical privacy. To have any impact at all the screening needs to be at least 5 feet high and one needs solid mass in this screening to block sound energy.

ABSORPTION AND ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT

Absorption: The properties of a material composition to convert sound energy into heat thereby reducing the amount of sound energy that can be reflected. Sound Absorption Coefficient: The fraction of energy striking a material or object that is not reflected. For instance, if a material reflects70% of the sound energy incident upon its surface, then its Sound Absorption Coefficient would be 0.30. SAC=absorption/area in sabins per sq. ft. The absorption coefficient ? is a property of a material. It defines the extent to which a material absorbs energy. Also known as absorption factor; absorption ratio; coefficient of absorption. (acoustics) The ratio of the sound energy absorbed by a surface of a medium or material to the sound energy incident on the surface.

SOUND ABSORPTION
Sound absorption is defined, as the incident sound that strikes a material that is not reflected back. An open window is an excellent absorber since the sounds passing through the open window are not reflected back but makes a poor sound barrier. Painted concrete block is a good sound barrier but will reflect about 97% if the incident sound striking it.

RESONANCE
The act of resounding. A prolongation or increase of any sound, either by reflection, as in a cavern or apartment the walls of which are not distant enough to return a distinct echo, or by the production of vibrations in other bodies, as a sounding-board, or the bodies of musical instruments.

RESONATORS
A resonator is a device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant behavior. Resonators are used to either generate waves of specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from a signal. Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves of specific tones.

SOUND ABSORBING MATERIALS

The materials used for reducing the reflection of sound waves in a room or hall are known as sound absorbing materials. These materials may be in the form of perforated boards, porous materials, heavy curtains, maps, pictures put upon the walls, carpets on the floor etc. These materials are suitably applied to the walls, ceiling and floor of a hall or a room to reduce reflection of sound waves from their surfaces. Sound absorbing materials are porous, inelastically flexible, compressible or they may be having combination of two or more of these properties. The materials having porous texture include porous plaster, glass silk, porous plastics and heavy fabric materials. Such materials, in suitable thickness, are used for absorbing sound waves of high frequencies. Other materials like fibre boards, plywood, oil cloth, paper, etc. can also be used for sound absorbing. These materials are fixed at some distance from the solid walls. In such cases, the space between the membranes and the surface of solid walls is often filled with a porous material to provide better sound absorbing effect.

Broadly speaking, the material having hard, rigid and non-porous surface, provide the least absorption, whereas those which are flexible, soft, porous and can vibrate, absorb more sound. The efficiency of the sound absorption, however, depends upon the porosity of the material used as sound absorbent. The term used to express the percentage of the incident sound that can be absorbed by a material is known as absorption coefficient of the material. Thus if the absorption co-efficient is 0.75, this would mean that the material is capable of absorbing 75% of the incident sound. The absorption co-efficient differs with the frequency of the incident sound. In general, low density materials have higher absorption co-efficient at the higher frequencies than at low frequencies.

REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD SOUND ABSORBING MATERIALS

A good sound absorbing material should fulfill the following requirements: 1. It should have sound absorbing efficiency. 2. It should be cheap. 3. It should be easy to fix. 4. It must be durable. 5. It should have good resistance to fire. 6. It should not be subjected to decay. 7. It should be light in weight. 8. It should be good in appearance.

CLASSIFICATION OF ABSOBENTS
Sound absorbents can be broadly classified into the following four categories: Porous absorbents. Resonant absorbents. Cavity resonators. Composite type of absorbents.

1. 2. 3. 4.

1. POROUS ABSORBENTS
When sound waves strike the surface of porous material, a part of the wave gets reflected while a part enters the pores of the material and is thought to be dissipated into heat energy (produced on account of the friction developed between the sound waves in motion in the restricted pores of the material). The efficiency of this type of absorbent increases with the increase in the resistance offered by the material to air flow, its thickness and the porosity. Slagwool, glasswool, woodwool, asbestos fibre spray, foamed plastic and perforated fibre boards are some of the categories or porous absorbents. In general, porous materials are selected to absorb sound having high frequency.

2. RESONANT ABSORBENTS
In this system, the absorbent material is fixed on sound framing (usually timber) with an air space left out between the framing and the wall at the back. Such an arrangement works most efficient for absorbing sound waves at low frequency. The principle of sound absorption in this method is that sound waves of the appropriate frequency cause sympathetic vibration in the panel which acts as a diaphragm. The absorption of sound takes place by virtue of the dampening of the sympathetic vibration in the panel by means of the air space behind the panel. Dampening effect of this system can be improved appreciably by placing a porous material in the space.

3. CAVITY RESONATORS
Cavity resonators essentially consist of a chamber with a narrow opening (entrance) in which absorption takes place by resonance of the air in the chamber which gives loss of sound energy. Such as arrangement can act effectively over a single selected frequency. Application of cavity resonator is normally restricted to absorption from individual machine or in similar cases.

4. COMPOSITE TPE OF ABSORBENTS

They consist of perforated panels mounted on battens so as to leave a cavity between panels and wall at the back. The panels may be of metal, wood (plywood), hard board, plaster board, etc. The area of holes in the panel should vary between 10 to 20% of the total area of the panel. When the sound strikes the panel, the sound waves pass through the holes and get damped by the resonance of the air in the cavity. The effectiveness can be increased by placing a porous material like mineral wood etc in the cavity. This type of absorbent is commonly used as it is easy to install, economical and it can accommodate wide range of frequencies.

WALL CONSTRUCTION
The sound insulation rating of a wall is generally governed by the net sound transmission loss it provides and also the efficiency with which it serves as a barrier for speed sound. Weight of the wall is the governing factor in wall insulation. It is seen that a solid one brick thick wall plastered on both sides, proves quiet effective as a sound insulation partition wall. It has an average reduction of 50dB. It is now, however, possible to have wall made from a suitable combination of materials which are light in weight and yet have high insulation value. A cavity wall type of construction can be made to have increased insulation value by filling the cavity with some resilient material. In this type of construction, the cavity should be at least 5cm in width and the two wall leaves should be tied by use of only light butterfly wall ties.

FLOORS
Transmission of sound takes place more easily through floors. Invariably, sound producing source has actual contact with the floor. Hence, the floor serves as the most common path for the transmission of impact noise. The ordinary RCC floor weighing less than 220kg/sq.m. has a sound reduction of only 45dB. Thus bare concrete and timber floors do not function effectively as barrier against sound. A floating floor resting on a resilient material like glass wool, mineral wool, quilt, cork, rubber, etc., has an increased rating for impact sound insulation. There are various types of floating floors: Wood raft floating floor: it consists of 50mm*50mm wide wooden battens, on which 20mm thick resilient quilt is laid over the structural floor slab. Concrete floating floor: It consists of a 70mm thick layer of 1:1.5:3 concrete screed laid on a 25mm thick resilient layer of mineral wool quilt. The quilt is covered with water proof paper to prevent the moisture from concrete screed traveling below on the structural floor slab.

1. 2.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF SOUND INSULATION OF FLOORS

DIFFERENT METHODS OF SOUND INSULATION OF TIMBER FLOORS

NOISE MITIGATION
Noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution. The main areas of noise mitigation or abatement, are: transportation noise control, architectural design, and occupational control. Multiple techniques have been developed to address interior sound levels. These techniques include design of exterior walls, party walls and floor/ceiling assemblies; Many of these techniques rely upon materials science applications of constructing sound baffles or using sound absorbing liners for interior spaces.

The following diagram shows a common noise

situation in many populated cities:

Principles of Noise Mitigation

A noise problem starts with a noise source such as a stream of traffic on a highway. The noise is transmitted through a path and then arrives at the receiver. The noise will be perceived as a problem when the noise is so high as to be a nuisance to the receiver. The severity of the problem depends on the strength of the noise source (such as heavy or light traffic) or the length of the path, that is, how large is the separation between the noise source and the receiver.

To reduce environmental noise, one can consider the following methods:

(a) Control at noise sources It is often a primary consideration to reduce noise at its source. Whenever possible, quieter working methods or technologies should be used. Enclosing the noise source can also be used to serve both acoustic and other purposes. A noise enclosure for reducing machine noise is commonly made of an exterior metal skin, an interior perforated sheet, with some absorptive materials such as fiberglass filled in between. (b) Noise reduction at the transmission path An obvious way of reducing noise is to separate the sources of noise from noise sensitive uses. This is however often not practical in a compact and high-rise city to rely only on distance attenuation to cut down the noise such as in the case of tackling road traffic noise. Additional attenuation, which can be provided through screening by natural landscape (such as earth bunds), structures of noise tolerant uses (such as carpark, commercial blocks or acoustic-insulated office buildings), purposely built podium decking, noise barriers or enclosures are often employed. Proper land use planning to avoid busy highways cutting across residential developments or coming too close to sensitive uses; locating noise tolerant uses to screen noise sensitive developments, and a combination of the different noise attenuation means can often pre-empt noise problems at the design stage. Options to avoid or minimize noise, say, through adopting alternative transport such as railway, pedestrian link, cycling path, underground roads can also be considered at the early planning stage. (c) Protection at the receiver end By arranging noise sensitive uses such as bedrooms facing away from the noise sources, the impact of noise on the receiver can be reduced. While acoustic insulation by good glazing can cut down noise, its application for residential buildings practically deprives the receiver of an "open-window" life style and requires the provision of airconditioning due to the warm and humid climate in Hong Kong. As such, it is often used as last resort only.

SOUND BAFFLE
A SOUND BAFFLE is a construction or device which reduces the intensity of air borne sound. Sound baffles are a fundamental tool of noise mitigation, the practice of minimizing noise pollution or reverberation. An important type of sound baffle is the noise barrier constructed along highways to reduce sound levels at properties in the vicinity. Sound baffles are also applied to walls and ceilings in building interiors to absorb sound energy and thus lessen reverberation . Baffle: A free hanging acoustical sound absorbing unit. Normally suspended vertically in a variety of patterns to introduce absorption into a space to reduce reverberation and noise levels. A muffler (or silencer in British English) is a device for reducing the amount of noise emitted by a machine.

SOUND BARRIER
Sound Barrier:A material that when placed around a source of noise inhibits the transmission of that noise beyond the barrier. Also, anything physical or an environment that interferes with communication or listening. For example, a poor acoustical environment can be a barrier to good listening and especially so for persons with a hearing impairment

NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT(NRC)

Noise Reduction (NR): The amount of noise that is reduced through the introduction of sound absorbing materials. The level (in decibels) of sound reduced on a logarithmic basis. The Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) is a scalar representation of the amount of sound energy absorbed upon striking a particular surface. An NRC of 0 indicates perfect reflection; an NRC of 1 indicates perfect absorption.

NOISE REDUCTION FACTOR(NRF)

Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC): The NRC of an acoustical material is the arithmetic average to the nearest multiple of 0.05 of its absorption coefficients at 4 octave bands with center frequencies of 250, 500, 1000, 2000 Hertz. The NRC rating can be viewed as a percentage (example: .80 = 80%) of what sound waves that come in contact with the acoustical material are absorbed by the material and NOT reflected back within the room. Noise Criteria (NC): Noise criteria curves used to evaluate existing listening conditions at ear level by measuring sound levels at the loudest locations in a room. NC criteria can be referred to equivalent dBA levels.

TRANSMISSION AND COEFFICIENT OF TRANSMISSION LOSS

Noise insulation: noise insulation properties of an element can be described by proportion of sound energy transmitted through it. A decimal fraction of total sound energy transmitted is called its transmission coefficient (t). Another form which can describe the insulating properties of the element is the transmission loss (Tl) of the sound energy impinging on it. This is also called sound reduction index. The reduction effect of an element is expressed in dB.

SOUND PRESSURE
Sound Pressure is the force of sound on a surface area perpendicular to the direction of the sound
OR

The Sound Pressure is the force (N) of sound on a surface area (m2) perpendicular to the direction of the sound. The SI-units for the Sound Pressure are N/m2 or Pa.

SOUND POWER
Sound power is the acoustical energy emitted by the sound source, and is an absolute value. It is not affected by the environment. Sound Pressure: The Sound Pressure is the force (N) of sound on

a surface area (m2) perpendicular to the direction of the sound. The SI-units for the Sound Pressure are N/m2 or Pa.
Sound Power Level: sound power level (PWL or Lw), which identifies the total sound power emitted by a source in all directions. Sound power, like electrical power, is measured in watts. In the case of sound, the amount of power is very small, so the reference selected for comparison is the Pico watt (10-12 watt). The sound power level (in decibels) is defined as :

Sound Pressure Level: The sound pressure level, in decibels, of a sound is 20 time the logarithm to the base of 10 of the ratio of the sound pressure to the reference pressure. The reference pressure shall be explicitly stated and is defined by standard.

SOUND TRANSMISSION CLASS

Sound Transmission Class (STC): This is a rating for doors, windows, enclosures, noise barriers, partitions and other acoustical products. The rating is in terms of their relative ability to provide privacy against intrusion of speech sounds. This is a one number rating system, heavily weighted in the 500Hz to 2000Hz frequency range where speech intelligitibility largely occurs.

SPEECH INTELLIGIBILITY
The ability of a listener to hear and correctly interpret verbal messages. In a classroom with high ceilings and hard parallel surfaces such as glass and tile, speech intelligibility is a particular problem. Sound bounces off walls, ceilings and floors, distorting the teachers instructions and interfering with students ability to comprehend.

ACOUSTICS AND SPEECH PRIVACY

Speech Privacy: The degree to which speech is unintelligible between offices. Three ratings are used: Confidential, Normal (Non Obtrusive) and Minimal.
A major problem in the design of many modern office buildings concerns the provision of adequate levels of speech privacy. This problem is particularly acute in open-plan offices, libraries etc. Main noise sources in such settings are: Telephones Typewriters Printers/photocopiers Environmental services e.g. air conditioning

Basically there are only two ways to overcome the privacy problem: 1. Reducing the signal strength. 2. Increase the noise level.

WAYS TO OVERCOME PRIVACY PROBLEM

1.

2.

WAYS OF REDUCING SIGNAL STRENGTH Room interiors provide surfaces that can either absorb or reflect sound. WAYS OF INCREASING THE NOISE LEVEL Mask or Masking: Sound masking is the addition of natural or artificial sound into an environment to cover-up unwanted sound by using auditory masking. Sound masking reduces or eliminates awareness of pre-existing sounds in a given area and can make a work environment more comfortable, while creating speech privacy so workers can better concentrate and be more productive. Sound masking can also be used in the outdoors to restore a more natural ambient environment.

SOUND MASKING
Sound masking can be explained by analogy with light. Imagine a dark room where someone is turning a flashlight on and off. The light is very obvious and distracting. Now imagine that the room lights are turned on. The flashlight is still being turned on and off, but is no longer noticeable because it has been "masked". Sound masking is a similar process of covering a distracting sound with a more soothing or less intrusive sound.
Sound masking may also be used to hide other unwanted noise, such as the intermittent sounds from machinery. In an office this could be sound of elevators. The applications, among others, are in government, military, military contractors, corporate board rooms, and legal offices.

Sound masking can be used anywhere to ensure speech privacy or reduce distractions. The most common sound masking installations are: Open office plans Private offices Public spaces

SOUND MASKING IN BUILDING INTERIORS

Sound masking can be used anywhere to ensure speech privacy or reduce distractions.The most common sound masking installations are: Open office plans - open offices can be either too quiet or too noisy. Open offices can benefit from sound masking because the added sound covers existing sounds in the area - making workers less distracted and more productive. Private offices - private offices and other enclosed spaces often appear to provide privacy but actually do not. Many times, walls are lightweight and do not extend to the ceiling deck - only to the ceiling tile. In these cases, sound can easily travel through partitions or over the walls. Sound masking can be provided in adjacent private offices, or in hallways outside of private offices, to ensure that confidential conversations remain confidential. Public spaces - sound masking is useful for reception areas, pharmacies, waiting rooms, and financial institutions. Sound masking is provided in the area where conversations should not be heard - not necessarily in the area where the conversation is taking place. For instance, a psychiatrist does not want those in the waiting room to overhear a private conversation with a patient, so sound masking is provided in the waiting area: not in the psychiatrist's office.

SOUND AMPLIFICATION SYSTEM

Going to the movies today is a very different experience from going to the movies 70 years agothe picture is clearer, most of the movies are in color and the admission price is a lot higher. But the biggest change is probably the sound experience. There are many ways to make and present a sound recording. The simplest method and the one used in the earliest sound movies, is called monaural or simply mono. Two-channel recordings, in which sound is played on speakers on either side of the listener, are often referred to as stereo. This isnt entirely accurate, as stereo (or stereophonic) actual refers to a wider range of multi-channel recordings. The simplest two-channel recordings, known as binaural recordings, are produced with two microphones set up at a live event (a concert for example) to take the place of a humans two ears. When you listen to these two channels on separate speakers, it recreates the experience of being present at the event.

SURROUND SOUND
Surround sound encompasses a range of techniques for enriching the sound reproduction quality of an audio source with audio channels reproduced via additional, discrete speakers. The three-dimensional (3D) sphere of human hearing can be virtually achieved with audio channels above and below the listener. Surround sound technology is used in cinema and home theatre systems, video game consoles, personal computers and other platforms. Commercial surround sound media include video cassettes, Video DVDs, and HDTV broadcasts encoded as Dolby Pro Logic, Dolby Digital, or DTS. Other commercial formats include the competing DVD-Audio (DVD-A) and Super Audio CD (SACD) formats, and MP3 Surround.

CREATING SURROUND SOUND

Surround sound is created in several ways: The first and simplest method is using a surround sound recording microphone technique, and/or mixing-in surround sound for playback on an audio system using speakers encircling the listener to play audio from different directions.

A second approach is processing the audio with psychoacoustic sound localization methods to simulate a twodimensional (2-D) sound field with headphones.
A third approach, based on Huygens principle, attempts reconstructing the recorded sound field wave fronts within the listening space; an "audio hologram" form.

SURROUND RECORDINGS
Surround recordings take this idea a step further, adding more audio channels so sound comes from three or more directions. While the term surround sound technically refers to specific multi-channel systems designed by Dolby Laboratories, it is more commonly used as generic term for theater and home theater multichannel sound systems.

STEREOPHONIC SOUND
Stereophonic sound, commonly called stereo, is the reproduction of sound using two or more independent audio channels through a symmetrical configuration of loud speakers in such a way as to create the impression of sound heard from various directions, as in natural hearing. Stereo recordings are used in FM broadcasting and Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and in several television systems. To record in stereo, sound engineers use various methods, including using two directional microphones, two parallel omni directional microphones, or more complex techniques.